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Biology

Biology is the study of life, from the molecules inside cells to the diversity of organisms and ecosystems. This book begins with the chemical and molecular basis of life, then explores how cells function, use energy, and transmit genetic information. It also examines how organisms develop, evolve, and interact with their environments, and introduces key tools in biotechnology, medicine, and scientific research. Together, these units offer a concise overview of how life operates at every level.

Introductory and General Biology Biology

Author: John W. Kimball
Publisher: Tufts University & Harvard University
Source: LibreTexts
License: CC BY
Language: EN
Category: Basic Sciences

Read online Download PDF (open licence)

Contents· 387 sections

01: The Chemical Basis of Life
1.01: Mixtures and Compounds
1.02: Elements and Atoms
1.03: Electronegativity and types of Chemical Bonds
1.04: Noncovalent Bonding
1.05: Hydrogen Bonds
1.06: Acids and Bases
1.07: Molecular Weight and the Mole
1.08: pH
02: The Molecules of Life
2.01: Organic Molecules
2.02: Hydrocarbons
2.03: Fats
2.04: Phospholipids
2.05: Cholesterol
2.06: Carbohydrates
2.07: Amino Acids
2.08: Enantiomers
2.09: Polypeptides
2.10: Proteins
2.11: Rules of Protein Structure
2.12: Glycoproteins
2.13: Nucleotides
2.14: Proteomics
03: The Cellular Basis of Life
3.01: Animal Cells
3.02: Cell Membranes
3.03: The Nucleus
3.04: Ribosomes
3.05: Endoplasmic Reticulum
3.06: Golgi Apparatus
3.07: Centrosomes and Centrioles
3.08: Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
3.09: Protein Kinesis
3.10: The Proteasome
3.11: The Cytoskeleton
3.12: Cilia
3.13: Animal Tissues
3.14: Adipose Tissue
3.15: Junctions between Cells
3.16: Plant Cells
3.17: Chloroplasts
3.18: Chlorophylls and Carotenoids
3.19: Plant Tissues
3.20: Apoptosis
3.21: Collagens
3.22: Chromatophores
3.23: Diffusion Active Transport and Membrane Channels
3.24: Endocytosis
3.25: Exocytosis
04: Cell Metabolism
4.01: Enzymes
4.02: ATP
4.03: NAD and NADP
4.04: Glycolysis
4.05: Cellular Respiration
4.06: ATP Synthase
4.07: Photosynthesis - Pathway of Carbon Fixation
4.08: Photosynthesis - The Role of Light
4.09: Photosynthesis - Dicovering the Secrets
4.10: Chemiosmosis
4.11: Metabolism
4.12: Intermediary Metabolism
4.13: G Proteins
4.14: Secondary Messengers
4.15: Bioluminescence
05: DNA
5.01: Transformation in Bacteria
5.02: The Hershey - Chase Experiments
5.03: The Double Helix of DNA
5.04: Base Pairing in DNA and RNA
5.05: DNA Replication
5.06: The Meselson - Stahl Experiment
5.07: Restriction Enzymes
5.08: DNA Sequencing by the Dideoxy Method
5.09: Genome Sizes
5.10: The Human Genome Projects
5.11: The Human and Chimpanzee Genomes
5.12: Pyrosequencing
5.13: DNA Repair
5.14: Harlequin Chromosomes
5.15: Metagenomics - Exploring the Microbial World
06: Gene Expression
6.01: One Gene - One Enzyme Theory
6.02: The Transcription of DNA into RNA
6.03: Genetic Code
6.04: The Translation of RNA into Proteins
6.05: RNA Editing
6.06: Expressed Sequence Tags
6.07: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Gene Cluster
07: Cell Division
7.01: Chromosomes
7.02: The Cell Cycle
7.03: Mitosis
7.04: Polyploidy
7.05: Endoreplication
7.06: Sex Chromosomes
7.07: Meiosis
08: The Genetic Consequences of Meiosis
8.01: Mendel's Monohybrid Crosses
8.02: Crossing Over and Genetic Recombination in Meiosis
8.03: The Evidence of Creighton and McClintock
8.04: Genetic linkage and Genetic Maps
8.05: Gene Mapping with Three-point Crosses
8.06: Quantitative Trait Loci
8.07: Mapping the Genes of T2
8.08: rII Locus of T4
09: Regulation of Gene Expression
9.01: Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria
9.02: The Tryptophan Repressor
9.03: Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
9.04: Steroid Response Elements
9.05: Epigenetics
9.06: Visualization of Transcription and Translation in Bacteria
9.07: Footprinting
9.08: Chromatin Immunoprecipitation
9.09: Isolating Transcription Factors
9.10: Palindromes
9.11: Cell-specific gene expression
9.12: Imprinted Genes
9.13: Ribozymes
10: Mutation
10.01: Mutations - Causes and Significance
10.02: Testing for Mutagenic Chemicals in Bacteria and Mice
10.03: Radiation and its effect on DNA
10.04: Transposons - jumping genes
11: Genomics
11.01: Recombinant DNA and Gene Cloning
11.02: Polymerase Chain Reaction
11.03: Gene Therapy - Methods and Prospects
11.04: Recent Advances in Gene Therapy
11.05: Transgenic Animals
11.06: Transgenic Plants
11.07: Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
11.08: Gel Blotting
11.09: Genetic Screening for Phenylketonuria
11.10: Antisense RNA
11.11: Antisense Oligodeoxynucleotides and their Therapeutic Potential
11.12: Forward and Reverse genetics
11.13: Metagenomics
12: Cancer
12.01: Cancer in General
12.02: Cancer Cells in Culture
12.03: Oncogenes
12.04: Tumor Suppressor Genes
12.05: BCL-2
12.06: Burkitt's Lymphoma
12.07: Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)
12.08: Fighting Cancer with Inhibitors of Angiogenesis
12.09: Immunotherapy of cancer
12.10: Cancer- The Causes and Prevention of Cancer
12.11: Estimating Cancer Risks
12.12: The LD50 test
12.13: Dioxin
12.14: Magnetic Fields and Cancer
13: Aging
13.01: Aging
13.02: Telomeres
14: Embryonic Development and its Regulation
14.01: Embryonic Development
14.02: Frog Embryology
14.03: Cleavage
14.04: The Organizer
14.05: Segmentation - Organizing the Embryo
14.06: Homeobox Genes
14.07: Stem Cells
14.08: Embryonic Stem Cells
14.09: Germline vs. Soma
14.10: Regeneration
15: The Anatomy and Physiology of Animals
15.01: Nutrition
15.1A: The Human Gastrointestinal Tract
15.1B: Metabolism
15.1C: Nutrition
15.1D: Recommended Dietary Allowances
15.02: Gas Exchange
15.2A: Human Respiratory System
15.2B: Control of Breathing
15.2C: Vertebrate Lungs
15.2D: Tracheal Breathing
15.03: Circulatory Systems
15.3A: Anatomy of Human Circulatory System
15.3B: How the Human Circulatory System Works
15.3C: The Heartbeat
15.3D: The Lymphatic System
15.3E: Blood
15.3F: Blood Groups
15.3G: The Transport of Heat
15.3H: Blood Clotting
15.3I: Sickle-Cell Disease
15.3J: Serine Proteases
15.3K: Animal Circulatory Systems
15.04: Immune System
15.4.01: 15.4T Allergies
15.4A: Clonal Selection and Immunological Memory
15.4B: Antibody-Antigen Binding
15.4C: B Cells and T Cells
15.4D: Antigen Receptors
15.4E: Histocompatibility Molecules
15.4F: Antigen Receptor Diversity
15.4G: Anatomy of the Immune System
15.4H: T Helper cells
15.4I: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
15.4J: Cell-Mediated Immunity
15.4K: Organ Transplants
15.4L: Bone Marrow Transplants
15.4M: Antigen Presentation
15.4N: The Immunological Synapse
15.4O: Dendritic Cells
15.4P: Passive Immunity
15.4Q: Innate Immunity
15.4R: The Complement System
15.4S: Inflammation
15.4U: Asthma
15.4V: AIDS
15.4W: Vaccines
15.05: Excretion
15.5A: Human Kidneys
15.5B: Vertebrate Kidneys
15.5C: Urea Cycle
15.06: Hormones
15.6.01: Human Hormones
15.6.1.01: Thyroid and Parathyroids
15.6.1.02: Hormones of the Gut
15.6.1.03: Hormones of the Pancreas
15.6.1.04: Hormones of the Pituitary
15.6.1.05: Hormones of the Hypothalamus
15.6.1.06: Adrenal Glands
15.6.1.07: Sex Hormones
15.6.1.08: Progesterone
15.6.1.09: Melatonin and the Pineal Gland
15.6.1.10: Hormones of Kidney Skin and Heart
15.6.1.11: Leptin - the Fat Hormone
15.6.1.12: Hormones of the Liver
15.6.1.13: Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
15.6.02: Insect Hormones
15.07: Sexual Reproduction
15.7A: Sexual Reproduction
15.7B: Asexual Reproduction in Animals
15.7C: Birth Control
15.7D: Prenatal Screening
15.7E: Extraembryonic Membranes and the Physiology of the Placenta
15.7F: Genetic Mosaics
15.7G: Human Cloning
15.08: Nervous System
15.8A: Neurons
15.8B: Synapses
15.8C: The Human Central Nervous System
15.8D: The Peripheral Nervous System
15.8E: Drugs and the Nervous System
15.8F: Nitric Oxide (NO)
15.8G: Prion Diseases
15.09: Senses
15.9A: Mechanoreceptors
15.9B: Hearing
15.9C: Vision
15.9D: Processing Visual Information
15.9E: Vision in Arthropods
15.9F: Heat Cold and Pain Receptors
15.9G: Taste
15.9H: Olfaction - The Sense of Smell
15.9I: Electric Organs and Electroreceptors
15.9J: Magnetoreceptors
15.10: Muscles
15.10A: Bones
15.10B: Muscles
15.10C: Testing the Sliding-Filament Hypothesis
15.11: Behavior
15.11.01: Innate Behavior
15.11.02: Taxis
15.11.03: Learned Behavior
15.11.04: Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
15.11.05: Honeybee Navigation
15.11.06: Avoiding Predation
15.11.07: Pheromones
15.11.08: Circadian Rhythms in Drosophila and Mammals
16: The Anatomy and Physiology of Plants
16.01: Plant Anatomy
16.1.01: Plant Tissues
16.1.02: Roots
16.1.03: Stems
16.1.04: The Leaf
16.1.05: Arabidopsis Thaliana
16.02: Plant Physiology
16.2A: Xylem
16.2B: Phloem
16.2C: Transpiration
16.2D: Gas Exchange in Plants
16.2E: Photorespiration and C4 Plants
16.2F: Tropisms
16.03: Reproduction in Plants
16.3A: Alternation of Generations in Plants
16.3B: Moss Life Cycle
16.3C: Fern Life Cycle
16.3D: Angiosperm Life Cycle
16.3E: Asexual Reproduction in Plants
16.3E: Self-incompatibility - How Plants Avoid Inbreeding
16.3F: Transgenic Plants
16.04: Plant Development - Fundamentals
16.4A: Plant Growth
16.4B: Germination of Seeds
16.4C: Etiolation
16.4D: Flowering
16.4E: Photoperiodism and Phytochrome
16.05: Plant Development - Hormones
16.5A: Abscisic acid (ABA)
16.5B: Auxin
16.5C: Cytokinins
16.5D: Ethylene
16.5E: Gibberellins
16.5F: Strigolactones
17: Ecology
17.01: Energy Flow through the Biosphere
17.1A: Ecosystem Productivity
17.1B: Food Chains and Food Webs
17.1C: Biomes
17.1D: Freshwater Ecosystems
17.1E: Marine Ecosystems
17.1F: Biomagnification of Pesticides
17.02: Cycles of Matter in the Biosphere
17.2A: Carbon Cycle
17.2B: Nitrogen Cycle
17.2C: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
17.2D: Soil
17.2E: Sewage Treatment
17.2F: Chlorination and the Law of Unintended Consequences
17.2G: Air Pollution
17.2H: Acid Rain
17.2I: Ozone
17.03: The Growth of Populations
17.3A: The Human Population
17.3B: Principles of Population Growth
17.04: Interactions between Species
17.4A: Symbiosis
17.4B: Insecticides
17.4C: Biological Control of Pests
18: Evolution
18.01: Evolution and Adaptation
18.02: Speciation
18.03: The Evolution of Body Form in Animals
18.04: Recapitulation
18.05: Mutation and Evolution
18.06: The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
18.07: Polymorphisms
18.08: Kin Selection
18.09: The Origin of Life
18.10: Mars
18.11: Endosymbiosis
18.12: Geologic Eras
19: The Diversity of Life
19.01: Eukaryotic Life
19.1.01: Taxonomy
19.1.02: Protists
19.1.03: Ciliates
19.1.04: Volvox
19.1.05: Diversity and Evolutionary Relationships of the Plants
19.1.06: Arabidopsis Thaliana - A Model Organism
19.1.07: Fungi
19.1.08: Yeast
19.1.09: Barcoding
19.1.10: Invertebrates
19.1.11: Drosophila Melanogaster
19.1.12: Caenorhabditis Elegans
19.1.13: Vertebrates
19.1.14: Zebrafish
19.1.15: Monotremes
19.02: Microbes
19.2A: Bacteria
19.2B: Archaea
19.2C: Antibiotics
19.2D: E. coli
19.2E: Anthrax
19.2F: Bacillus Thuringiensis
19.2G: The Rapid Identification of Microorganisms
19.03: Viruses
19.3A: Viruses
19.3B: Influenza
19.3C: X174
19.3D: Smallpox
19.3E: Retroviruses
20: General Science
20.01: Epidemiology
20.02: Types of Clinical Studies
20.03: Scientific Methods
20.04: Scientific Papers
20.05: Statistical Methods
20.06: Drugs