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Anatomy and Physiology 2e

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Anatomy and Physiology 2e

Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Physiology is the scientific study of the normal function in living systems with a focus on how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions in a living system. Anatomy and physiology make a natural pair of related disciplines that are often studied together.

Anatomy and PhysiologyMedicine
Author
OpenStax
Publisher
LibreTexts
Source
LibreTexts
License
CC BY
Language
EN
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Contents· 367 sections
  1. 01: Levels of Organization
  2. 01: An Introduction to the Human Body
  3. 1.01: Introduction
  4. 1.02: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
  5. 1.03: Structural Organization of the Human Body
  6. 1.04: Functions of Human Life
  7. 1.05: Requirements for Human Life
  8. 1.06: Homeostasis
  9. 1.07: Anatomical Terminology
  10. 1.08: Medical Imaging
  11. 1.09: Key Terms
  12. 1.10: Chapter Review
  13. 1.11: Interactive Link Questions
  14. 1.12: Review Questions
  15. 1.13: Critical Thinking Questions
  16. 02: The Chemical Level of Organization
  17. 2.01: Introduction
  18. 2.02: Elements and Atoms - The Building Blocks of Matter
  19. 2.03: Chemical Bonds
  20. 2.04: Chemical Reactions
  21. 2.05: Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
  22. 2.06: Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
  23. 2.07: Key Terms
  24. 2.08: Chapter Review
  25. 2.09: Interactive Link Questions
  26. 2.10: Review Questions
  27. 2.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  28. 03: The Cellular Level of Organization
  29. 3.01: Introduction
  30. 3.02: The Cell Membrane
  31. 3.03: The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
  32. 3.04: The Nucleus and DNA Replication
  33. 3.05: Protein Synthesis
  34. 3.06: Cell Growth and Division
  35. 3.07: Cellular Differentiation
  36. 3.08: Key Terms
  37. 3.09: Chapter Review
  38. 3.10: Interactive Link Questions
  39. 3.11: Review Questions
  40. 3.12: Critical Thinking Questions
  41. 04: The Tissue Level of Organization
  42. 4.01: Introduction
  43. 4.02: Types of Tissues
  44. 4.03: Epithelial Tissue
  45. 4.04: Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
  46. 4.05: Muscle Tissue and Motion
  47. 4.06: Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
  48. 4.07: Tissue Injury and Aging
  49. 4.08: Key Terms
  50. 4.09: Chapter Review
  51. 4.10: Interactive Link Questions
  52. 4.11: Review Questions
  53. 4.12: Critical Thinking Questions
  54. 02: Support and Movement
  55. 05: The Integumentary System
  56. 5.01: Introduction
  57. 5.02: Layers of the Skin
  58. 5.03: Accessory Structures of the Skin
  59. 5.04: Functions of the Integumentary System
  60. 5.05: Diseases Disorders and Injuries of the Integumentary System
  61. 5.06: Key Terms
  62. 5.07: Chapter Review
  63. 5.08: Interactive Link Questions
  64. 5.09: Review Questions
  65. 5.10: Critical Thinking Questions
  66. 06: Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System
  67. 6.01: Introduction
  68. 6.02: The Functions of the Skeletal System
  69. 6.03: Bone Classification
  70. 6.04: Bone Structure
  71. 6.05: Bone Formation and Development
  72. 6.06: Fractures - Bone Repair
  73. 6.07: Exercise Nutrition Hormones and Bone Tissue
  74. 6.08: Calcium Homeostasis - Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
  75. 6.09: Key Terms
  76. 6.10: Chapter Review
  77. 6.11: Review Questions
  78. 6.12: Critical Thinking Questions
  79. 07: Axial Skeleton
  80. 7.01: Introduction
  81. 7.02: Divisions of the Skeletal System
  82. 7.03: The Skull
  83. 7.04: The Vertebral Column
  84. 7.05: The Thoracic Cage
  85. 7.06: Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
  86. 7.07: Key Terms
  87. 7.08: Chapter Review
  88. 7.09: Interactive Link Questions
  89. 7.10: Review Questions
  90. 7.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  91. 08: The Appendicular Skeleton
  92. 8.01: Introduction
  93. 8.02: The Pectoral Girdle
  94. 8.03: Bones of the Upper Limb
  95. 8.04: The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
  96. 8.05: Bones of the Lower Limb
  97. 8.06: Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
  98. 8.07: Key Terms
  99. 8.08: Chapter Review
  100. 8.09: Interactive Link Questions
  101. 8.10: Review Questions
  102. 8.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  103. 09: Joints
  104. 9.01: Introduction
  105. 9.02: Classification of Joints
  106. 9.03: Fibrous Joints
  107. 9.04: Cartilaginous Joints
  108. 9.05: Synovial Joints
  109. 9.06: Types of Body Movements
  110. 9.07: Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
  111. 9.08: Development of Joints
  112. 9.09: Key Terms
  113. 9.10: Chapter Review
  114. 9.11: Interactive Link Questions
  115. 9.12: Review Questions
  116. 9.13: Critical Thinking Questions
  117. 10: Muscle Tissue
  118. 10.01: Introduction
  119. 10.02: Overview of Muscle Tissues
  120. 10.03: Skeletal Muscle
  121. 10.04: Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
  122. 10.05: Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
  123. 10.06: Types of Muscle Fibers
  124. 10.07: Exercise and Muscle Performance
  125. 10.08: Cardiac Muscle Tissue
  126. 10.09: Smooth Muscle
  127. 10.10: Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
  128. 10.11: Key Terms
  129. 10.12: Chapter Review
  130. 10.13: Interactive Link Questions
  131. 10.14: Review Questions
  132. 10.15: Critical Thinking Questions
  133. 11: The Muscular System
  134. 11.01: Introduction
  135. 11.02: Interactions of Skeletal Muscles Their Fascicle Arrangement and Their Lever Systems
  136. 11.03: Naming Skeletal Muscle
  137. 11.04: Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back
  138. 11.05: Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax
  139. 11.06: Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs
  140. 11.07: Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs
  141. 11.08: Key Terms
  142. 11.09: Chapter Review
  143. 11.10: Review Questions
  144. 11.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  145. 03: Regulation Integration and Control
  146. 12: The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
  147. 12.01: Introduction
  148. 12.02: Basic Structures and Function of the Nervous System
  149. 12.03: Nervous Tissue
  150. 12.04: The Function of Nervous Tissue
  151. 12.05: The Action Potential
  152. 12.06: Communication Between Neurons
  153. 12.07: Key Terms
  154. 12.08: Chapter Review
  155. 12.09: Interactive Link Questions
  156. 12.10: Review Questions
  157. 12.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  158. 13: Anatomy of the Nervous Tissue
  159. 13.01: Introduction
  160. 13.02: The Embryologic Perspective
  161. 13.03: The Central Nervous System
  162. 13.04: Circulation and the Central Nervous System
  163. 13.05: The Peripheral Nervous System
  164. 13.06: Key Terms
  165. 13.07: Chapter Review
  166. 13.08: Interactive Link Questions
  167. 13.09: Review Questions
  168. 13.10: Critical Thinking Questions
  169. 14: The Somatic Nervous System
  170. 14.01: Introduction
  171. 14.02: Sensory Perception
  172. 14.03: Central Processing
  173. 14.04: Motor Processing
  174. 14.05: Key Terms
  175. 14.06: Chapter Review
  176. 14.07: Interactive Link Questions
  177. 14.08: Review Questions
  178. 14.09: Critical Thinking Questions
  179. 15: The Autonomic Nervous System
  180. 15.01: Introduction
  181. 15.02: Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
  182. 15.03: Autonomic Reflexes and Homeostasis
  183. 15.04: Central Control
  184. 15.05: Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System
  185. 15.06: Key Terms
  186. 15.07: Chapter Review
  187. 15.08: Interactive Link Questions
  188. 15.09: Review Questions
  189. 15.10: Critical Thinking Questions
  190. 16: The Neurological Exam
  191. 16.01: Introduction
  192. 16.02: Overview of the Neurological Exam
  193. 16.03: The Mental Status Exam
  194. 16.04: The Cranial Nerve Exam
  195. 16.05: The Sensory and Motor Exams
  196. 16.06: The Coordination and Gait Exams
  197. 16.07: Key Terms
  198. 16.08: Chapter Review
  199. 16.09: Interactive Link Questions
  200. 16.10: Review Questions
  201. 16.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  202. 17: The Endocrine System
  203. 17.01: Introduction
  204. 17.02: An Overview of the Endocrine System
  205. 17.03: Hormones
  206. 17.04: The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
  207. 17.05: The Thyroid Gland
  208. 17.06: The Parathyroid Glands
  209. 17.07: The Adrenal Glands
  210. 17.08: The Pineal Gland
  211. 17.09: Gonadal and Placental Hormones
  212. 17.10: The Endocrine Pancreas
  213. 17.11: Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
  214. 17.12: Development and Aging of the Endocrine System
  215. 17.13: Key Terms
  216. 17.14: Chapter Review
  217. 17.15: Interactive Link Questions
  218. 17.16: Review Questions
  219. 17.17: Critical Thinking Questions
  220. 04: Fluids and Transport
  221. 18: The Cardiovascular System - Blood
  222. 18.01: Introduction
  223. 18.02: An Overview of Blood
  224. 18.03: Production of the Formed Elements
  225. 18.04: Erythrocytes
  226. 18.05: Leukocytes and Platelets
  227. 18.06: Hemostasis
  228. 18.07: Blood Typing
  229. 18.08: Key Terms
  230. 18.09: Chapter Review
  231. 18.10: Interactive Link Questions
  232. 18.11: Review Questions
  233. 18.12: Critical Thinking Questions
  234. 19: The Cardiovascular System - The Heart
  235. 19.01: Introduction
  236. 19.02: Heart Anatomy
  237. 19.03: Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
  238. 19.04: Cardiac Cycle
  239. 19.05: Cardiac Physiology
  240. 19.06: Development of the Heart
  241. 19.07: Key Terms
  242. 19.08: Chapter Review
  243. 19.09: Interactive Link Questions
  244. 19.10: Review Questions
  245. 19.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  246. 20: The Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Circulation
  247. 20.01: Introduction
  248. 20.02: Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
  249. 20.03: Blood Flow Blood Pressure and Resistance
  250. 20.04: Capillary Exchange
  251. 20.05: Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
  252. 20.06: Circulatory Pathways
  253. 20.07: Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation
  254. 20.08: Key Terms
  255. 20.09: Chapter Review
  256. 20.10: Interactive Link Questions
  257. 20.11: Review Questions
  258. 20.12: Critical Thinking Questions
  259. 21: The Lymphatic and Immune System
  260. 21.01: Introduction
  261. 21.02: Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
  262. 21.03: Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response
  263. 21.04: The Adaptive Immune Response - T Lymphocytes and Their Functional Types
  264. 21.05: The Adaptive Immune Response - B Lymphocytes and Antibodies
  265. 21.06: The Immune Response Against Pathogens
  266. 21.07: Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
  267. 21.08: Transplantation and Cancer Immunology
  268. 21.09: Key Terms
  269. 21.10: Chapter Review
  270. 21.11: Interactive Link Questions
  271. 21.12: Review Questions
  272. 21.13: Critical Thinking Questions
  273. 05: Energy Maintenance and Environmental Exchange
  274. 22: The Respiratory System
  275. 22.01: Introduction
  276. 22.02: Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
  277. 22.03: The Lungs
  278. 22.04: The Process of Breathing
  279. 22.05: Gas Exchange
  280. 22.06: Transport of Gases
  281. 22.07: Modifications in Respiratory Functions
  282. 22.08: Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
  283. 22.09: Key Terms
  284. 22.10: Chapter Review
  285. 22.11: Interactive Link Questions
  286. 22.12: Review Questions
  287. 22.13: Critical Thinking Questions
  288. 23: The Digestive System
  289. 23.01: Introduction
  290. 23.02: Overview of the Digestive System
  291. 23.03: Digestive System Processes and Regulation
  292. 23.04: The Mouth Pharynx and Esophagus
  293. 23.05: The Stomach
  294. 23.06: The Small and Large Intestines
  295. 23.07: Accessory Organs in Digestion- The Liver Pancreas and Gallbladder
  296. 23.08: Chemical Digestion and Absorption - A Closer Look
  297. 23.09: Key Terms
  298. 23.10: Chapter Review
  299. 23.11: Interactive Link Questions
  300. 23.12: Review Questions
  301. 23.13: Critical Thinking Questions
  302. 24: Metabolism and Nutrition
  303. 24.01: Introduction
  304. 24.02: Overview of Metabolic Reactions
  305. 24.03: Carbohydrate Metabolism
  306. 24.04: Lipid Metabolism
  307. 24.05: Protein Metabolism
  308. 24.06: Metabolic States of the Body
  309. 24.07: Energy and Heat Balance
  310. 24.08: Nutrition and Diet
  311. 24.09: Key Terms
  312. 24.10: Chapter Review
  313. 24.11: Review Questions
  314. 24.12: Critical Thinking Questions
  315. 25: The Urinary System
  316. 25.01: Introduction
  317. 25.02: Physical Characteristics of Urine
  318. 25.03: Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
  319. 25.04: Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
  320. 25.05: Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
  321. 25.06: Physiology of Urine Formation
  322. 25.07: Tubular Reabsorption
  323. 25.08: Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
  324. 25.09: Endocrine Regulation of Kidney Function
  325. 25.10: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition
  326. 25.11: The Urinary System and Homeostasis
  327. 25.12: Key Terms
  328. 25.13: Chapter Review
  329. 25.14: Review Questions
  330. 25.15: Critical Thinking Questions
  331. 26: Fluid Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
  332. 26.01: Introduction
  333. 26.02: Body Fluids and Fluid Compartment
  334. 26.03: Water Balance
  335. 26.04: Electrolyte Balance
  336. 26.05: Acid-Base Balance
  337. 26.06: Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
  338. 26.07: Key Terms
  339. 26.08: Chapter Review
  340. 26.09: Interactive Link Questions
  341. 26.10: Review Questions
  342. 26.11: Critical Thinking Questions
  343. 06: Human Development and the Continuity of Life
  344. 27: The Reproductive System
  345. 27.01: Introduction
  346. 27.02: Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
  347. 27.03: Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
  348. 27.04: Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
  349. 27.05: Key Terms
  350. 27.06: Chapter Review
  351. 27.07: Interactive Link Questions
  352. 27.08: Review Questions
  353. 27.09: Critical Thinking Questions
  354. 28: Development and Inheritance
  355. 28.01: Introduction
  356. 28.02: Fertilization
  357. 28.03: Embryonic Development
  358. 28.04: Fetal Development
  359. 28.05: Changes During Pregnancy Labor and Birth
  360. 28.06: Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages
  361. 28.07: Lactation
  362. 28.08: Patterns of Inheritance
  363. 28.09: Key Terms
  364. 28.10: Chapter Review
  365. 28.11: Interactive Link Questions
  366. 28.12: Review Questions
  367. 28.13: Critical Thinking Questions