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Anatomy and Physiology (Boundless)

Anatomy and Physiology Medicine

Author: Boundless (now LumenLearning)
Publisher: Boundless
Source: LibreTexts
License: CC BY-SA
Language: EN

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Contents· 1018 sections

1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
1.1: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
1.1A: Defining Anatomy
1.1B: Defining Physiology
1.2: Life
1.2A: Life Functions
1.2B: Survival Needs
1.2C: Levels of Organization
1.3: Homeostasis
1.3A: Homeostatic Control
1.3B: Disease as Homeostatic Imbalance
1.4: Mapping the Body
1.4A: Anatomical Position
1.4B: Directional Terms
1.4C: Regional Terms and Axes
1.4D: Body Planes and Sections
1.4E: Body Cavities
1.4F: Abdominopelvic Regions
2: The Chemical Building Blocks of Life
2.1: Atomic Structure
2.1A: Overview of Atomic Structure
2.1B: Atomic Number and Mass Number
2.2: Chemical Bonds
2.2A: Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions
2.2B: Ions and Ionic Bonds
2.2C: The Chemical Basis for Life
2.3: Inorganic Compounds
2.3A: pH Buffers Acids and Bases
2.3B: Waters Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
2.3C: Waters High Heat Capacity
2.3D: Waters States: Gas Liquid and Solid
2.3E: Waters Solvent Properties
2.4: Organic Compounds
2.4A: Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
2.4B: Types of Biological Macromolecules
2.4C: Dehydration Synthesis
3: Organization at the Cellular Level
3.1: Introduction to the Study of Cells
3.1A: Cells as the Basic Unit of Life
3.2: Cell Membranes and the Fluid Mosaic Model
3.2A: Components of Plasma Membranes
3.2B: Fluid Mosaic Model
3.2C: Membrane Fluidity
3.3: Transport Across Membranes
3.3A: Diffusion
3.3B: Osmosis
3.3C: Tonicity
3.3D: Facilitated transport
3.3E: The Role of Passive Transport
3.3F: Primary Active Transport
3.3G: Electrochemical Gradient
3.3H: Secondary Active Transport
3.3I: Endocytosis
3.4: Cell Signaling
3.4A: Types of Receptors
3.5: The Nucleus and Ribosomes
3.5A: The Nucleus and Ribosomes
3.5B: Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
3.6: Organelles
3.6A: The Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm
3.6B: The Endoplasmic Reticulum
3.6C: The Golgi Apparatus
3.6D: Lysosomes
3.6E: Peroxisomes
3.6F: Mitochondria
3.7: The Cytoskeleton
3.7A: Intermediate Filaments and Microtubules
3.7B: Microfilaments
3.8: External Cellular Components
3.8A: Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
3.8B: Intercellular Junctions
4: Organization at the Tissue Level
4.1: Introduction to Tissues
4.1A: Tissues in Levels of Organization
4.2: Epithelial Tissue
4.2A: Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
4.2B: Types of Epithelial Tissue
4.3: Connective Tissue
4.3A: Characteristics of Connective Tissue
4.3B: Types of Connective Tissue
4.4: Nervous Tissue
4.4A: Characteristics of Nervous Tissue
4.4B: Types of Nervous Tissue
4.5: Muscular Tissue
4.5A: Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
4.6: Tissue Membranes
4.6A: Epithelial Membranes
4.6B: Synovial Membranes
5: Integumentary System
5.1: The Skin
5.1A: What is Skin
5.1B: Structure of the Skin: Epidermis
5.1C: Structure of the Skin: Dermis
5.1D: Skin Color
5.2: Cell Junctions
5.2A: Tight Junctions
5.2B: Adherens Junctions
5.3C: Gap Junctions
5.3: Accessory Structures of the Skin
5.3A: Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands
5.3B: Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
5.3C: Nails
5.3D: Hair
5.4: Functions of the Integumentary System
5.4A: Protection
5.4B: Thermoregulation
5.4C: Cutaneous Sensation
5.4D: Metabolic Functions
5.4E: Blood Supply to the Epidermis
5.4F: Excretion and Absorption
5.5: Wound Healing
5.5A: Steps of Tissue Repair
5.5B: Epidermal Wound Healing
5.5C: Deep Wound Healing
5.6: Overview of Cancer
5.6A: Overview of Cancer
5.6B: Cell Signaling and Cell Death
6: Skeletal System
6.1: Overview of the Skeletal System
6.1A: Overview of the Musculoskeletal System
6.1B: The Axial Skeleton
6.1C: The Appendicular Skeleton
6.2: Cartilage
6.2A: Structure Type and Location of Cartilage
6.2B: Cartilage Growth
6.3: Introduction to Bone
6.3A: Gross Anatomy
6.3B: Supply of Blood and Nerves to Bone
6.3C: Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
6.3D: Chemical Composition of Bone
6.4: Bone Formation
6.4A: Embryonic and Fetal Bone Formation
6.4B: Postnatal Bone Growth
6.4C: Bone Remodeling
6.4D: Bone Repair
6.5: Bone and Calcium
6.5A: Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
7: Skeletal System - Parts of the Skeleton
7.1: The Skull
7.1A: General Features and Functions of the Skull
7.1B: Cranial Bones
7.1C: Facial Bones
7.1D: Orbits
7.1E: Foramina
7.1F: Fontanelles
7.1F: Sutures
7.1G: Paranasal Sinuses
7.2: The Hyoid Bone
7.2A: The Hyoid Bone
7.3: The Vertebral Column
7.3A: General Characteristics of the Spine
7.3B: Parts of a Vertebra
7.3C: Regional Vertebral Characteristics
7.4: The Thorax
7.4A: Thoracic Cage: Sternum
7.4B: Thoracic Cage: Ribs
7.5: The Shoulder
7.5A: Clavicle
7.5B: Scapula
7.6: The Upper Limb
7.6A: Humerus (The Upper Arm)
7.6B: Ulna and Radius (The Forearm)
7.6C: Carpals Metacarpals and Phalanges (The Hand)
7.7: The Hip
7.7A: Ilium
7.7B: Ischium
7.7C: Pubis
7.7D: False and True Pelves
7.7E: Comparison of Female and Male Pelves
7.7F: Pelvic Structure and Childbearing
7.8: The Lower Limb
7.8A: Femur (The Thigh)
7.8B: Patella (The Knee)
7.8C: Tibia and Fibula (The Leg)
7.8D: Tarsals Metatarsals and Phalanges (The Foot)
7.9E: Arches of the Feet
8: Joints
8.1: Classification of Joints
8.1A: Structural Classification of Joints
8.1B: Functional Classification of Joints
8.2: Fibrous Joints
8.2A: Fibrous Joints
8.2B: Sutures
8.2C: Syndesmoses
8.2D: Gomphoses
8.3: Cartilaginous Joints
8.3A: Cartilaginous Joints: Synchodroses
8.3B: Cartilaginous Joints: Symphyses
8.4: Synovial Joints
8.4A: Structure of Synovial Joints
8.4B: Nerve and Blood Supply
8.4C: Bursae and Tendon Sheaths
8.4D: Stability and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints
8.4E: Synovial Joint Movements
8.4E: Types of Synovial Joints
9: Muscular System
9.1: Introduction to the Nervous System
9.1A: Structure and Function of the Muscular System
9.1B: Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
9.1C: Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
9.1D: ATP and Muscle Contraction
9.1E: Control of Muscle Tension
9.2: Smooth Muscle
9.2A: Skeletal Muscle Fibers
9.3: Control of Muscle Tension
9.3A: Force of Muscle Contraction
9.3B: Velocity and Duration of Muscle Contraction
9.3C: Motor Units
9.3D: Muscle Tone
9.3E: Types of Muscle Contractions: Isotonic and Isometric
9.4: Muscle Metabolism
9.4A: Muscle Metabolism
9.4B: Muscle Fatigue
9.5: Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue
9.5A: Impacts of Exercise on Muscles
9.6: Overview of the Muscular System
9.6A: Interactions of Skeletal Muscles
9.6B: How Skeletal Muscles Are Named
9.6C: How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements
9.6D: Muscle Attachment Sites
9.6E: Arrangement of Fascicles
9.6F: Lever Systems
9.7: Head and Neck Muscles
9.7A: Facial Muscles
9.7B: Chewing Muscles
9.7C: Neck Muscles
9.8: Trunk Muscles
9.8A: Anterior Muscles
9.8B: Posterior Muscles
9.9: Muscles of the Upper Limb
9.9A: Muscles of the Humerus that Act on the Forearm
9.9B: Muscles of the Wrist and Hand
9.9C: Muscles of the Shoulder
9.9D: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Ankle
9.10: Muscles of the Lower Limb
9.10A: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Hip Joint
9.10B: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Knee Joint
9.10C: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Foot
10: Overview of the Nervous System
10.1: Introduction to the Nervous System
10.1A: Organization of the Nervous System
10.1B: Functions of the Nervous System
10.1C: Subdivisions of the Nervous System
10.2: Neuroglia
10.2A: Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System
10.2B: Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System
10.3: Neurons
10.3A: Structural Diversity of Neurons
10.3B: Classification of Neurons
10.4: Collections of Nervous Tissue
10.4A: Clusters of Neuronal Cell Bodies
10.4B: Axon Bundles
10.4C: Gray and White Matter
10.5: Neurophysiology
10.5A: Principles of Electricity
10.5B: Ion Channels
10.5D: Membrane Potentials as Signals
10.5D: Resting Membrane Potentials
10.5E: The Action Potential and Propagation
10.5F: The Synapse
10.5G: Postsynaptic Potentials and Their Integration at the Synapse
10.5H: Synaptic Transmission
10.5I: Types of Neurotransmitters by Function
10.5J: Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors
10.5K: Serial and Parallel Processing
11: Central Nervous System
11.1: The Spinal Cord
11.1A: Overview of the Spinal Cord
11.1B: The Spine
11.1C: Spinal Cord Grey Matter and Spinal Roots
11.1D: Spinal Cord White Matter
11.2: The Brain
11.2A: The Brain
11.3: Protection of the Brain
11.3A: Blood-Brain Barrier
11.3B: Cerebrospinal Fluid and Its Circulation
11.3C: Ventricles
11.4: The Brain Stem
11.4A: Functions of the Brain Stem
11.4B: Medulla Oblongata
11.4C: Pons
11.4D: Midbrain
11.4E: Reticular Formation
11.5: The Cerebellum
11.5A: Parts of the Cerebellum
11.5B: Functions of the Cerebellum
11.6:The Diencephalon
11.6A: Functions of the Diencephalon
11.6B: Thalamus
11.6C: Hypothalamus
11.6D: Epithalamus and Pineal Gland
11.6E: Circumventricular Organs
11.7: The Cerebrum
11.7A: Overview of the Cerebrum
11.7B: Cerebral Lobes
11.7C: White Matter of the Cerebrum
11.7D: Basal Ganglia
11.7E: Limbic System
11.8: Functional Systems of the Cerebral Cortex
11.8A: Sensory Areas
11.8B: Motor Areas
11.8C: Association Areas
11.8D: Hemispheric Lateralization
12: Peripheral Nervous System
12.1: Sensation
12.1A: Overview of Sensation
12.1B: Sensation to Perception
12.1C: Sensory Modalities
12.2: Sensory Receptors
12.2A: Classification of Receptors by Stimulus
12.2B: Classification of Receptors by Location
12.3: The Somatosensory System
12.3A: General Organization of the Somatosensory System
12.3B: Tactile Sensation
12.3C: Proprioceptive Sensations
12.3D: Somatic Sensory Pathways
12.3E: Mapping the Primary Somatosensory Area
12.3F: Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum
12.4: Nerves
12.4A: Structure of a Nerve
12.4B: Classification of Nerves
12.5: Cranial Nerves
12.5A: Brief Overview of Cranial Nerves
12.5B: Olfactory (I) Nerve
12.5C: Optic (II) Nerve
12.5D: Oculomotor (III) Nerve
12.5E: Trochlear (IV) Nerve
12.5F: Trigeminal (V) Nerve
12.5G: Abducens (VI) Nerve
12.5H: Facial (VII) Nerve
12.5I: Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve
12.5J: Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve
12.5K: Vagus (X) Nerve
12.5L: Accessory (XI) Nerve
12.5M: Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve
12.6: Spinal Nerves
12.6A: Overview of the Spinal Nerves
12.6B: Branches of Spinal Nerves
12.6C: Plexuses
12.6D: Intercostal Nerves
12.6E: Dermatomes
12.6F: Function and Physiology of the Spinal Nerves
12.7: Distribution of Spinal Nerves
12.7A: Cervical Plexus
12.7B: Brachial Plexus
12.7C: Lumbar Plexus
12.7D: Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses
12.7E: Sensory and Motor Tracts
12.8: Motor Activity
12.8A: Peripheral Motor Endings
12.8B: Overview of Motor Integration
12.9: Motor Pathways
12.9A: Organization of Motor Neuron Pathways
12.9B: The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Movement
12.9C: Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum
12.9D: Functions of the Cerebellum in Integrating Movements
12.10: Reflexes
12.10A: Components of a Reflex Arc
12.10C: Spinal Reflexes
12.11: Pain
12.11A: Pain Sensation
12.11B: Localization of Pain
13: Special Senses
13.1: The Vertebrate Visual System
13.1A: Anatomy of the Eye
13.1B: Transduction of Light
13.1C: Visual Processing
13.2: Taste and Olfaction
13.2A: Tastes and Odors
13.2B: Reception and Transduction
13.3: Hearing and Equilibrium
13.3A: Sound
13.3B: The Vestibular System
13.3C: Reception of Sound
13.3D: Transduction of Sound
14: Autonomic Nervous System
14.1: Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System
14.1A: Comparing the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
14.1B: Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
14.2: Structure of the Autonomic Nervous System
14.2A: Preganglionic Neurons
14.2B: Autonomic Ganglia
14.2C: Postganglionic Neurons
14.2D: Autonomic Plexuses
14.2E: Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) Division
14.2F: Autonomic Reflexes
14.2G: Sympathetic Nervous System
14.3: Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
14.3A: Sympathetic Responses
14.3B: Parasympathetic Responses
14.3C: Autonomic Interactions
14.3D: Control of Autonomic Nervous System Function
14.4: Neurotransmitters and Receptors
14.4A: Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
14.4B: Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
14.4C: Agonists Antagonists and Drugs
15: Endocrine System
15.1: Overview of the Endocrine System
15.1A: Overview of the Endocrine System
15.1B: Comparing the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
15.2: Hormones
15.2A: Mechanisms of Hormone Action
15.2B: Hormone Receptors
15.2C: Chemistry of Hormones
15.2D: Transport of Hormones
15.3: Mechanisms of Hormone Action
15.3A: Direct Gene Activation and the Second-Messenger System
15.3B: Target Cell Specificity
15.3C: Onset Duration and Half-Life of Hormone Activity
15.4: Hormone Interactions
15.4A: Interactions of Hormones at Target Cells
15.5: Hormone Secretion Control
15.5A: Control of Hormone Secretion
15.6: Endocrine Glands
15.6A: Overview of Endocrine Glands
15.7: The Pituitary Gland
15.7A: Overview of the Pituitary Gland
15.7B: Control of the Pituitary Gland by the Hypothalamus
15.7C: The Anterior Pituitary
15.7D: The Posterior Pituitary
15.8: The Thyroid Gland
15.8A: Overview of the Thyroid Gland
15.8B: Formation Storage and Release of Thyroid Hormones
15.8C: Action of Thyroid Hormones
15.8D: Control of Thyroid Hormone Release
15.9: The Parathyroid Glands
15.9A: Overview of the Parathyroid Glands
15.9B: Parathyroid Hormone
15.10: The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
15.10A: Overview of the Adrenal Glands
15.10B: Adrenal Cortex
15.10C: Adrenal Medulla
15.11: The Pancreas
15.11A: Overview of Pancreatic Islets
15.11B: Types of Cells in the Pancreas
15.11C: Insulin Secretion and Regulation of Glucagon
15.12: Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
15.13: Stress
16: Cardiovascular System - Blood
16.1: Overview of Blood
16.1A: Components of Blood
16.1B: Physical Characteristics and Volume
16.1C: Functions of Blood
16.1D: Blood Plasma
16.2: Red Blood Cells
16.2A: RBC Anatomy
16.2B: RBC Physiology
16.2C: RBC Life Cycle
16.3: White Blood Cells
16.3A: Types of WBCs
16.3B: WBC Function
16.3C: WBC Formation
16.4: Platelets
16.4A: Platelets
16.4B: Platelet Formation
16.5: Hemostasis
16.5A: Overview of Hemostasis
16.5B: Vascular Spasm
16.5C: Platelet Plug Formation
16.5D: Coagulation
16.5E: Role of Vitamin K
16.5F: Clot Retraction and Repair
16.5G: Fibrinolysis
16.6: Transfusions
16.6A: Transfusions of Whole Blood
16.6B: Plasma and Blood Volume Expanders
16.6C: Blood Groups and Blood Types
16.6D: Typing and Cross-Matching for Transfusions
17: Cardiovascular System: The Heart
17.1: The Heart
17.1A: Anatomy of the Heart
17.1B: Pericardium
17.1C: Layers of the Heart Walls
17.1D: Chambers of the Heart
17.1E: Great Vessels of the Heart
17.1F: Myocardial Thickness and Function
17.1G: Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart
17.2: Circulation and Heart Valves
17.2A: Heart Circulation
17.2B: Operation of Atrioventricular Valves
17.2C: Operation of Semilunar Valves
17.2D: Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
17.3: Cardiac Muscle Tissue
17.3A: Mechanism and Contraction Events of Cardiac Muscle Fibers
17.3B: Microscopic Anatomy
17.3C: Energy Requirements
17.4: Physiology of the Heart
17.4A: Electrical Events
17.4B: Electrocardiogram and Correlation of ECG Waves with Systole
17.4C: Heart Sounds
17.4D: Cardiac Cycle
17.4E: Cardiac Output
17.5: Exercise and the Heart
17.5A: Effects of Exercise on the Heart
Section 6:
18: Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
18.1: Blood Vessel Structure and Function
18.1A: Blood Vessel Structure
18.1B: Blood Vessel Function
18.2: Arteries
18.2A: Artery Function
18.2B: Elastic Arteries
18.2C: Muscular Arteries
18.2D: Anastomoses
18.2E: Arterioles
18.2F: Capillaries
18.3: The Venous System
18.3A: Venules
18.3B: Veins
18.4: Physiology of Circulation
18.4A: Introduction to Blood Flow Pressure and Resistance
18.4B: Distribution of Blood
18.5: Systemic Blood Pressure
18.5A: Introduction to Blood Pressure
18.5B: Arterial Blood Pressure
18.5C: Venous Blood Pressure
18.6: Control of Blood Pressure
18.6A: Role of the Cardiovascular Center
18.6B: Short-Term Neural Control
18.6C: Checking Circulation
18.6C: Short-Term Chemical Control
18.6D: Long-Term Renal Regulation
18.6E: Pulse
18.6F: Measuring Blood Pressure
18.6G: Extremes in Blood Pressure
18.7: Blood Flow Through the Body
18.7A: Velocity of Blood Flow
18.7B: Local Regulation of Blood Flow
18.7C: Blood Flow in Skeletal Muscle
18.7D: Blood Flow in the Brain
18.7E: Blood Flow in the Skin
18.7F: Blood Flow in the Lungs
18.7G: Blood Flow in the Heart
18.7H: Hepatic Portal Circulation
18.8: Capillary Exchange
18.8A: Capillary Dynamics
18.8B: Transcytosis
18.8C: Bulk Flow: Filtration and Reabsorption
18.9: Circulatory Shock
18.9A: Types of Shock
18.9B: Homeostatic Responses to Shock
18.9C: Signs and Symptoms of Shock
18.10: Circulatory Routes
18.10A: The Aorta and Its Branches
18.10B: Ascending Aorta
18.10C: Arch of the Aorta
18.10D: Thoracic Aorta
18.10E: Abdominal Aorta
18.10F: Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
19: Lymphatic System
19.1: Lymphatic System Structure and Function
19.1A: Structure of the Lymphatic System
19.1B: Functions of the Lymphatic System
19.2: Lymphatic Vessels
19.2A: Lymphatic Vessel Structure
19.2B: Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels
19.2C: Lymph Transport
19.2D: Lymphatic Capillaries
19.2E: Lymph Trunks and Ducts
19.3: Lymph Cells and Tissues
19.3A: Lymphoid Cells
19.3B: Lymphoid Tissue
19.3C: Lymph Nodes
19.4: Other Lymphoid Organs
19.4A: Thymus
19.4B: Spleen
19.4C: Tonsils
20: Immune System
20.1: Innate Immunity
20.1A: Skin and Mucosae (Surface Barriers)
20.1B: Phagocytes
20.1C: Natural Killer Cells
20.1D: Inflammation
20.1E: Antimicrobial Proteins
20.1F: Fever
20.2: Stress and Immunity
20.2A: Stress and Immunity
20.3: Adaptive Immunity
20.3A: Overview of Adaptive Immunity
20.3B: Types of Adaptive Immunity
20.3C: Maturation of T Cells
20.3D: Lymphocytes
20.3E: Antigen-Presenting Cells
20.4: Cytokines
20.4A: Types of Cytokines Participating in Immune Response
20.5: Antigens
20.5A: Antigens and Antigen Receptors
20.5B: Complete Antigens and Haptens
20.5C: Antigenic Determinants and Processing Pathways
20.6: Humoral Immune Response
20.6A: Clonal Selection and B-Cell Differentiation
20.6B: Structure and Function of Antibodies
20.6C: Role of the Complement System in Immunity
20.6D: Immunological Memory
20.6E: Major Histocompatibility Complex Antigens (Self-Antigens)
20.7: Cell-Mediated Immune Response
20.7A: Clonal Selection and T-Cell Differentiation
20.7B: Specific T-Cell Roles
20.7C: Active and Passive Humoral Immunity
21: Respiratory System
21.1: Overview of the Respiratory System
21.1A: The Reason for Breathing
21.1B: Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
21.2: Conducting Zone
21.2A: Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
21.2B: Pharynx
21.2C: Larynx
21.2D: Structures Used in Voice Production
21.2E: Trachea
21.3: Respiratory Zone
21.3A: Bronchi and Subdivisions
21.3B: Alveoli
21.4: The Lungs and Pleurae
21.4A: Lungs
21.4B: Lobes Fissures and Lobules
21.4C: Blood Supply to the Lungs
21.5: Mechanics of Breathing
21.5A: Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation
21.5B: Inspiration
21.5C: Expiration
21.5D: Breathing Patterns
21.6: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
21.6A: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation: Surface Tension of Alveolar Fluid
21.6B: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation: Compliance of the Lungs
21.6C: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation: Airway Resistance
21.7: Nonrespiratory Lung Functions
21.7A: Lung Capacity and Volume
21.7B: Nonrespiratory Air Movements
21.8: Gas Laws
21.8A: Daltons Law of Partial Pressure
21.8B: Henrys Law
21.9: Gas Exchange
21.1A: External Respiration
21.9B: Internal Respiration
21.9C: Oxygen Transport
21.9D: Carbon Dioxide Transport
21.10: Respiration Control
21.10A: Neural Mechanisms (Respiratory Center)
21.10B: Neural Mechanisms (Cortex)
21.10C: Chemoreceptor Regulation of Breathing
21.10D: Proprioceptor Regulation of Breathing
21.11: Respiratory Adjustments
21.11A: Adjustments During Exercise
21.11B: Adjustments at High Altitude
22: Digestive System
22.01: Overview of the Digestive System
22.1A: Anatomy of the Digestive System
22.1B: Processes and Functions of the Digestive System
22.1C: Organs of the Digestive System
22.02: Nervous System of the Digestive System
22.2A: Enteric Nervous System
22.2B: Gastrointestinal Reflex Pathways
22.03: The Peritoneum
22.3: The Peritoneum
22.04: The Alimentary Canal
22.4A: Mouth
22.4B: Pharynx
22.4C: Esophagus
22.05: Layers of the Alimentary Canal
22.5A: Mucosa
22.5B: Submucosa
22.5C: Muscularis
22.5D: Serosa
22.6: The Stomach
22.6A: Gross Anatomy of the Stomach
22.6B: Microscopic Anatomy of the Stomach
22.6C: Digestive Properties of the Stomach
22.07: The Liver
22.7A: The Liver
22.7B: Anatomy of the Liver
22.7C: Histology of the Liver
22.7D: Blood Supply to the Liver
22.7E: Liver Function
22.7F: Bile
22.08: The Gallbladder
22.8A: The Gallbladder
22.8B: Anatomy of the Gallbladder
22.09: The Pancreas
22.9A: Pancreas
22.9B: Anatomy of the Pancreas
22.9C: Histology of the Pancreas
22.9D: Pancreatic Juice
22.10: The Small Intestine
22.10A: Anatomy of the Small Intestine
22.10B: Histology of the Small Intestine
22.10C: Digestive Processes of the Small Intestine
22.11: The Large Intestine
22.11A: Anatomy of the Large Intestine
22.11B: Histology of the Large Intestine
22.11C: Bacterial Flora
22.11D: Digestive Processes of the Large Intestine
22.11E: Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine
22.11F: Defecation Reflex
22.12: Chemical Digestion
22.12A: Mechanisms of Chemical Digestion
22.12B: Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids and Nucleic Acids
22.13: Absorption
22.13A: Absorption in the Small Intestine
22.13B: Absorption of Monosaccharides Amino Acids Dipeptides Tripeptides Lipids Electrolytes Vitamins and Water
22.14: Phases of Digestion
22.14A: Cephalic Phase
22.14B: Gastric Phase
23: Nutrition and Metabolism
23.1: Nutrition
23.1A: Digestive Systems
23.1B: Carbohydrates: Sources Uses in the Body and Dietary Requirements
23.1C: Lipids: Sources Uses in the Body and Dietary Requirements
23.1D: Proteins: Sources Uses in the Body and Dietary Requirements
23.1E: Food Requirements and Essential Nutrients
23.2: Carbohydrates
23.2A: Carbohydrate Molecules
23.2B: Importance of Carbohydrates
23.3: Lipids
23.3A: Lipid Molecules
23.3B: Phospholipids
23.3C: Steroids
23.4: Proteins
23.4A: Types and Functions of Proteins
23.4B: Amino Acids
23.4C: Protein Structure
23.5: Metabolic Reactions
23.5A: Breakdown of Pyruvate
23.5B: Citric Acid Cycle
23.5C: Importance of Glycolysis
23.5D: Electron Transport Chain
23.5E: ATP Yield
23.5F: Control of Catabolic Pathways
23.5G: Transforming Chemical Energy
23.6: Metabolism of Nutrients
23.6A: Connecting Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism
23.6B: Connecting Proteins to Glucose Metabolism
23.7: Metabolic Body States
23.7A: Catabolic-Anabolic Steady State
23.7B: Absorptive State
23.7C: Postabsorptive State
23.8: Metabolism and the Liver
23.8A: Cholesterol Metabolism
23.8B: Regulation of Blood Cholesterol Levels
23.9: Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
23.9A: Homeostatic Process
23.9B: Homeostasis: Thermoregulation
23.9C: Heat Conservation and Dissipation
23.10: Diet Digestion and Energy Storage Regulation
23.10A: Hormonal Responses to Food
23.10B: Neural Responses to Food
23.10C: Food Energy and ATP
24: Urinary System
24.1: Overview of the Urinary System
24.1A: Overview of the Urinary System
24.2: The Kidneys
24.2A: Location and External Anatomy of the Kidneys
24.2B: Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
24.2C: Supply of Blood and Nerves to the Kidneys
24.2D: Nephron Parts and Histology
24.3: Physiology of the Kidneys
24.3A: Overview of Urine Formation
24.3B: Glomerular Filtration
24.3C: Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
24.3D: Tubular Reabsorption
24.3E: Tubular Secretion
24.4: Urine
24.4A: Physical Characteristics of Urine
24.4B: Chemical Composition of Urine
24.4C: Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume
24.4D: Urinalysis
24.4E: Renal Clearance
24.5: Urine Transport Storage and Elimination
24.5A: Overview of Urine Transport Storage and Elimination
24.5B: Ureters
24.5C: Urinary Bladder
24.5D: Urethra
24.5E: Micturition and the Micturition Reflex
24.5F: Waste Management in Other Body Systems
25: Body Fluids and Acid-Base Balance
25.1: Water Balance
25.1A: Regulation of Water Intake
25.1B: Regulation of Water Output
25.1C: Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals: The Urea Cycle
25.1D: Water Balance Disorders
25.2: Body Fluids
25.2A: Water Content in the Body
25.2B: Fluid Compartments
25.2C: Body Fluid Composition
25.2D: Movement of Fluid Among Compartments
25.3: Electrolyte Balance
25.3A: Sodium Electrolytes and Fluid Balance
25.3B: Sodium Balance Regulation
25.3C: Potassium Balance Regulation
25.3D: Calcium and Phosphate Balance Regulation
25.3E: Anion Regulation
25.4: Acid-Base Balance
25.4A: pH Buffers Acids and Bases
25.4B: Chemical Buffer Systems
25.4C: Regulation of H by the Lungs
25.4D: The Role of the Kidneys in Acid-Base Balance
26: The Reproductive System
26.1: Overview of the Reproductive System
26.1A: Overview of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
26.2: Meiosis
26.2A: Introduction to Meiosis
26.2B: Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
26.3: The Male Reproductive System
26.3A: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
26.3B: Scrotum
26.3C: Testes
26.3D: Penis
26.3E: Testes Ducts
26.3F: Accessory Sex Glands
26.4: Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
26.4A: Male Sexual Response
26.4B: Sperm
26.4C: Spermatogenesis
26.4D: Semen
26.4E: Hormonal Regulation of the Male Reproductive System
26.5: The Female Reproductive System
26.5A: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
26.5B: Ovaries
26.5C: Uterus
26.5D: Female Duct System
26.5E: Vagina
26.5F: Vulva
26.5G: Perineum
26.5H: Mammary Glands
26.6: Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
26.6A: Oogenesis
26.6B: Ovarian Cycle
26.6C: Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
26.6D: Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
26.6E: Extrauterine Effects of Estrogens and Progesterone
26.6F: Female Sexual Response
27: Human Development and Pregnancy
27.1: Overview of Pregnancy and Human Development
27.1A: Introduction to Pregnancy and Human Development
27.2: First Week of Development
27.2A: Fertilization
27.2B: Cleavage of the Zygote
27.2C: Blastocyst Formation
27.2D: Implantation
27.3: Second Week of Development
27.3A: Trophoblast Development
27.3B: Bilaminar Embryonic Disc Development
27.3C: Amnion Development
27.3D: Yolk Sac Development
27.3E: Sinusoid Development
27.3F: Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom
27.4: Third Week of Development
27.4A: Gastrulation
27.4B: Neurulation
27.4C: Somite Development
27.4D: Development of the Cardiovascular System
27.4E: Chorionic Villi and Placental Development
27.5: Fourth Week of Development
27.5A: Fourth Week of Development
27.6: Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development
27.6A: Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development
27.7: Birth (Parturition)
27.7A: Onset of Labor
27.7B: Stages of Labor
27.7C: Adjustments of the Infant at Birth
27.8: Lactation
27.8A: Physiology of Lactation
27.9: The Fetal Period
27.9A: Fetal Development
27.9B: Teratogens
27.9C: Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
27.10: Changes to the Mother's Body During Pregnancy
27.10A: Anatomical Changes
27.10B: Metabolic Changes
27.10C: Physiological Changes
27.10D: Exercise and Pregnancy
28: Reproduction Chromosomes and Meiosis
28.1: The Link Between Genotype and Phenotype
28.1A: The Process and Purpose of Gene Expression Regulation
28.1B: The Relationship Between Genes and Proteins
28.1C: Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
28.2: Inherited Variation
28.2A: Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
28.3: Chromosomal Behavior in Meiosis and Fertilization
28.3A: The Structure and Sequence of DNA
28.4: DNA
28.4A: DNA and RNA
28.4B: The DNA Double Helix
28.4C: DNA Packaging
28.4D: Types of RNA
28.5: Cell Division
28.5A: The Role of the Cell Cycle
28.5B: Genomic DNA and Chromosomes
28.5C: Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
28.6: Sources of Genetic Variation
28.6A: Genetic Variation
28.6B: Mendels Law of Segregation
28.6C: Mendels Law of Independent Assortment
28.7: Complex Inheritance Patterns
28.3C: Mendels Model System
28.7A: The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross
28.7B: Phenotypes and Genotypes
28.8: Patterns of Inheritance
28.8A: Lethal Inheritance Patterns
28.8B: Sex-Linked Traits
28.9: Genetic Disequilibrium
28.9A: Genetic Linkage and Distances
28.9B: Chromosomal Structural Rearrangements
28.10: Exceptions to Mendelian Inheritance
28.10A: Mendels Laws of Heredity
29: APPENDIX A: Diseases Injuries and Disorders of the Organ Systems
29.1: Diseases Injuries and Disorders of the Integumentary System
29.1A: Burns
29.1B: Allergies
29.1C: Acne
29.2: Diseases and Disorders of the Skeletal System
29.2A: Osteoporosis
29.2B: Pagets Disease
29.3: Injuries and Disorders of the Skeleton
29.3A: Spina Bifida
29.3B: Fractures
29.4: Diseases Disorders and Injuries of the Joints
29.4A: Sprain and Strain
29.4B: Rheumatism and Arthritis
29.4C: Common Joint Injuries
29.5: Diseases Disorders and Injuries of the Muscular System
29.5A: Muscular Dystrophy
29.5B: Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage
29.5C: Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
29.6: Injuries Diseases and Disorders of the Central Nervous System
29.6A: Traumatic Brain Injury
29.6B: Cerebrovascular Accident
29.6C: Transient Ischemic Attacks
29.6D: Alzheimers Disease
29.6E: Brain Tumors
29.6F: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
29.7: Diseases and Disorders of the Endocrine System
29.7A: Pancreatic Islet Disorders: Diabetes and Hyperinsulinism
29.7B: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
29.8: Blood Diseases and Disorders
29.8A: Hemostasis Disorders
29.8B: Anemia
29.8C: Sickle-Cell Disease
29.8D: Leukemia
29.9: Diseases and Disorders of the Heart
29.9A: Congenital Heart Defects
29.9B: Myocarditis and Endocarditis
29.9C: Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction
29.9D: Arrhythmia
29.10: Circulatory Diseases and Disorders
29.10A: Angiogenesis and Disease
29.10B: Varicose Veins
29.10C: Syncope
29.10D: Hypertension
29.11: Diseases and Disorders of the Immune System
29.11A: Immunodeficiencies
29.11B: Autoimmune Diseases
29.11C: Infectious Mononucleosis
29.11D: Psoriasis
29.12: Respiratory Diseases and Disorders
29.12A: Asthma
29.12B: Respiratory Distress Syndrome
29.12C: Cystic Fibrosis
29.12D: Hypoxia
29.13: Diseases and Disorders of the Digestive System
29.13A: Peritonitis
29.13B: Mumps
29.13C: Lactose Intolerance
29.13D: Peptic Ulcer Disease
29.14: Diseases and Disorders of the Metabolism
29.14A: Phenylketonuria (PKU)
29.14B: Galactosemia and Glycogen Storage Disease
29.15: Diseases and Disorders of the Urinary System
29.15A: Renal Disease and Failure
29.15B: Nephroptosis (Floating Kidney)
29.15C: Polycystic Kidney Disease
29.16: Body Fluid-Related Diseases and Disorders
29.16A: Acidosis
29.16B: Alkalosis
29.16C: Edema
29.17: Diseases and Disorders of the Reproductive System
29.17A: Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
29.17B: Erectile Dysfunction and the Blue Pill
29.17C: Cervical Cancer
29.18: Pregnancy-Related Disorders
29.18A: Ectopic Pregnancy
29.18B: Infertility
30: APPENDIX B: Development and Aging of the Organ Systems
30.1: Integumentary System Development
30.1A: Development of the Integumentary System
30.1B: Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
30.2: Bone Development
30.2A: Stages of Bone Development
30.2B: Exercise and Bone Tissue
30.2C: Bone Tissue and the Effects of Aging
30.3: Development of the Skeleton
30.3A: Development of the Skeleton
30.3B: Aging and the Skeleton
30.4: Joint Development
30.4A: Development of Joints
30.4B: Joints and Aging
30.4C: Arthroplasty
30.5: Muscle Development
30.5A: Muscle Development
30.6: Development of the Nervous System
30.6A: Development of the Central Nervous System
30.6B: Development of the Peripheral Nervous System
30.6C: Regeneration of Nerve Fibers
30.6D: Aging and the Nervous System
30.7: Development of the Special Senses
30.7A: Taste and Smell at Birth and in Old Age
30.7B: Development of Vision
30.47C: Development of Hearing and Balance
30.8: Development of the Endocrine System
30.9: Development of Blood
30.10: Development of the Heart
30.11: Development of Blood Vessels
30.12: Development of Lymphatic Tissues
30.13: Development of the Immune System
30.14: Development of the Respiratory System
30.15: Development of the Digestive System
30.16: Development of Metabolism
30.17: Development of Bodily Fluids
30.18: Development of the Reproductive System