External

AandP for STEM Educators

Medicine

Author: Felicia Esteban
Publisher: James Madison University
Source: LibreTexts
License: CC BY-SA
Language: EN

Read online Download PDF (open licence)

Contents· 924 sections

01: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
1.01: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
1.1A: Defining Anatomy
1.1B: Defining Physiology
1.02: Life
1.2A: Life Functions
1.2B: Survival Needs
1.2C: Levels of Organization
1.03: Homeostasis
1.3A: Homeostatic Control
1.3B: Disease as Homeostatic Imbalance
1.04: Mapping the Body
1.4A: Anatomical Position
1.4B: Directional Terms
1.4C: Regional Terms and Axes
1.4D: Body Planes and Sections
1.4E: Body Cavities
1.4F: Abdominopelvic Regions
02: The Chemical Building Blocks of Life
2.01: Atomic Structure
2.1A: Overview of Atomic Structure
2.1B: Atomic Number and Mass Number
2.02: Chemical Bonds
2.2A: Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions
2.2B: Ions and Ionic Bonds
2.2C: The Chemical Basis for Life
2.03: Inorganic Compounds
2.3A: pH Buffers Acids and Bases
2.3B: Waters Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
2.3C: Waters High Heat Capacity
2.3D: Waters States- Gas Liquid and Solid
2.3E: Waters Solvent Properties
2.04: Organic Compounds
2.4A: Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
2.4B: Types of Biological Macromolecules
2.4C: Dehydration Synthesis
03: Organization at the Cellular Level
3.01: Introduction to the Study of Cells
3.1A: Cells as the Basic Unit of Life
3.02: Cell Membranes and the Fluid Mosaic Model
3.2A: Components of Plasma Membranes
3.2B: Fluid Mosaic Model
3.2C: Membrane Fluidity
3.03: Transport Across Membranes
3.3A: Diffusion
3.3B: Osmosis
3.3C: Tonicity
3.3D: Facilitated transport
3.3E: The Role of Passive Transport
3.3F: Primary Active Transport
3.3G: Electrochemical Gradient
3.3H: Secondary Active Transport
3.3I: Endocytosis
3.04: Cell Signaling
3.4A: Types of Receptors
3.05: The Nucleus and Ribosomes
3.5A: The Nucleus and Ribosomes
3.5B: Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
3.06: Organelles
3.6A: The Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm
3.6B: The Endoplasmic Reticulum
3.6C: The Golgi Apparatus
3.6D: Lysosomes
3.6E: Peroxisomes
3.6F: Mitochondria
3.07: The Cytoskeleton
3.7A: Intermediate Filaments and Microtubules
3.7B: Microfilaments
3.08: External Cellular Components
3.8A: Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
3.8B: Intercellular Junctions
04: Integumentary System
4.01: The Skin
4.1A: What is Skin
4.1B: Structure of the Skin- Dermis
4.1C: Skin Color
4.02: Cell Junctions
4.2A: Tight Junctions
4.2B: Adherens Junctions
4.2C: Gap Junctions
4.03: Accessory Structures of the Skin
4.3A: Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands
4.3B: Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
4.3C: Nails
4.3D: Hair
4.04: Functions of the Integumentary System
4.4A: Protection
4.4B: Thermoregulation
4.4C: Cutaneous Sensation
4.4D: Metabolic Functions
4.4E: Blood Supply to the Epidermis
4.4F: Excretion and Absorption
4.05: Wound Healing
4.5A: Steps of Tissue Repair
4.5B: Epidermal Wound Healing
4.5C: Deep Wound Healing
4.06: Overview of Cancer
4.6A: Overview of Cancer
4.6B: Cell Signaling and Cell Death
05: Skeletal System - Parts of the Skeleton
5.01: The Skull
5.1A: General Features and Functions of the Skull
5.1B: Cranial Bones
5.1C: Facial Bones
5.1D: Orbits
5.1E: Foramina
5.1F: Fontanelles
5.1F: Sutures
5.1G: Paranasal Sinuses
5.02: The Hyoid Bone
5.2A: The Hyoid Bone
5.03: The Vertebral Column
5.3A: General Characteristics of the Spine
5.3B: Parts of a Vertebra
5.3C: Regional Vertebral Characteristics
5.04: The Thorax
5.4A: Thoracic Cage- Sternum
5.4B: Thoracic Cage- Ribs
5.05: The Shoulder
5.5A: Clavicle
5.5B: Scapula
5.06: The Upper Limb
5.6A: Humerus (The Upper Arm)
5.6B: Ulna and Radius (The Forearm)
5.6C: Carpals Metacarpals and Phalanges (The Hand)
5.07: The Hip
5.7A: Ilium
5.7B: Ischium
5.7C: Pubis
5.7D: False and True Pelves
5.7E: Comparison of Female and Male Pelves
5.7F: Pelvic Structure and Childbearing
5.08: The Lower Limb
5.8A: Femur (The Thigh)
5.8B: Patella (The Knee)
5.8C: Tibia and Fibula (The Leg)
5.8D: Tarsals Metatarsals and Phalanges (The Foot)
5.8E: Arches of the Feet
06: Joints
6.01: Classification of Joints
6.1A: Structural Classification of Joints
6.1B: Functional Classification of Joints
6.02: Fibrous Joints
6.2A: Fibrous Joints
6.2B: Sutures
6.2C: Syndesmoses
6.2D: Gomphoses
6.03: Cartilaginous Joints
6.3A: Cartilaginous Joints- Synchodroses
6.3B: Cartilaginous Joints- Symphyses
6.04: Synovial Joints
6.4A: Structure of Synovial Joints
6.4B: Nerve and Blood Supply
6.4C: Bursae and Tendon Sheaths
6.4D: Stability and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints
6.4E: Synovial Joint Movements
6.4E: Types of Synovial Joints
07: Muscular System
7.01: Muscles of the Lower Limb
7.1A: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Hip Joint
7.1B: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Knee Joint
7.1C: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Foot
7.02: Introduction to the Nervous System
7.2A: Structure and Function of the Muscular System
7.2B: Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
7.2C: Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
7.2D: ATP and Muscle Contraction
7.2E: Control of Muscle Tension
7.03: Smooth Muscle
7.3A: Skeletal Muscle Fibers
7.04: Control of Muscle Tension
7.4A: Force of Muscle Contraction
7.4B: Velocity and Duration of Muscle Contraction
7.4C: Motor Units
7.4D: Muscle Tone
7.4E: Types of Muscle Contractions- Isotonic and Isometric
7.05: Muscle Metabolism
7.5A: Muscle Metabolism
7.5B: Muscle Fatigue
7.06: Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue
7.6A: Impacts of Exercise on Muscles
7.07: Overview of the Muscular System
7.7A: Interactions of Skeletal Muscles
7.7B: How Skeletal Muscles Are Named
7.7C: How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements
7.7D: Muscle Attachment Sites
7.7E: Arrangement of Fascicles
7.7F: Lever Systems
7.08: Head and Neck Muscles
7.8A: Facial Muscles
7.8B: Chewing Muscles
7.8C: Neck Muscles
7.09: Trunk Muscles
7.9A: Anterior Muscles
7.9B: Posterior Muscles
7.10: Muscles of the Upper Limb
7.10A: Muscles of the Humerus that Act on the Forearm
7.10B: Muscles of the Wrist and Hand
7.10C: Muscles of the Shoulder
7.10D: Muscles that Cause Movement at the Ankle
08: Overview of the Nervous System
8.01: Introduction to the Nervous System
8.1A: Organization of the Nervous System
8.1B: Functions of the Nervous System
8.1C: Subdivisions of the Nervous System
8.02: Neuroglia
8.2A: Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System
8.2B: Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System
8.03: Neurons
8.3A: Structural Diversity of Neurons
8.3B: Classification of Neurons
8.04: Collections of Nervous Tissue
8.4A: Clusters of Neuronal Cell Bodies
8.4B: Axon Bundles
8.4C: Gray and White Matter
8.05: Neurophysiology
8.5A: Principles of Electricity
8.5B: Ion Channels
8.5C: Membrane Potentials as Signals
8.5D: Resting Membrane Potentials
8.5E: The Action Potential and Propagation
8.5F: The Synapse
8.5G: Postsynaptic Potentials and Their Integration at the Synapse
8.5H: Synaptic Transmission
8.5I: Types of Neurotransmitters by Function
8.5J: Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors
8.5K: Serial and Parallel Processing
09: Central Nervous System
9.01: The Brain
9.1A: The Brain
9.02: Protection of the Brain
9.2A: Blood-Brain Barrier
9.2B: Cerebrospinal Fluid and Its Circulation
9.2C: Ventricles
9.03: The Brain Stem
9.3A: Functions of the Brain Stem
9.3B: Medulla Oblongata
9.3C: Pons
9.3D: Midbrain
9.3E: Reticular Formation
9.04: The Cerebellum
9.4A: Parts of the Cerebellum
9.4B: Functions of the Cerebellum
9.05: The Diencephalon
9.5A: Functions of the Diencephalon
9.5B: Thalamus
9.5C: Hypothalamus
9.5D: Epithalamus and Pineal Gland
9.5E: Circumventricular Organs
9.06: The Cerebrum
9.6A: Overview of the Cerebrum
9.6B: Cerebral Lobes
9.6C: White Matter of the Cerebrum
9.6D: Basal Ganglia
9.6E: Limbic System
9.07: Functional Systems of the Cerebral Cortex
9.7A: Sensory Areas
9.7B: Motor Areas
9.7C: Association Areas
9.7D: Hemispheric Lateralization
9.08: The Spinal Cord
9.8A: Overview of the Spinal Cord
9.8B: The Spine
9.8C: Spinal Cord Grey Matter and Spinal Roots
9.8D: Spinal Cord White Matter
10: Peripheral Nervous System
10.01: Reflexes
10.1A: Components of a Reflex Arc
10.1B: Spinal Reflexes
10.02: Pain
10.2A: Pain Sensation
10.2B: Localization of Pain
10.03: Sensation
10.3A: Overview of Sensation
10.3B: Sensation to Perception
10.3C: Sensory Modalities
10.04: Sensory Receptors
10.4A: Classification of Receptors by Stimulus
10.4B: Classification of Receptors by Location
10.05: The Somatosensory System
10.5A: General Organization of the Somatosensory System
10.5B: Tactile Sensation
10.5C: Proprioceptive Sensations
10.5D: Somatic Sensory Pathways
10.5E: Mapping the Primary Somatosensory Area
10.5F: Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum
10.06: Nerves
10.6A: Structure of a Nerve
10.6B: Classification of Nerves
10.07: Cranial Nerves
10.7A: Brief Overview of Cranial Nerves
10.7B: Olfactory (I) Nerve
10.7C: Optic (II) Nerve
10.7D: Oculomotor (III) Nerve
10.7E: Trochlear (IV) Nerve
10.7F: Trigeminal (V) Nerve
10.7G: Abducens (VI) Nerve
10.7H: Facial (VII) Nerve
10.7I: Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve
10.7J: Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve
10.7K: Vagus (X) Nerve
10.7L: Accessory (XI) Nerve
10.7M: Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve
10.08: Spinal Nerves
10.8A: Overview of the Spinal Nerves
10.8B: Branches of Spinal Nerves
10.8C: Plexuses
10.8D: Intercostal Nerves
10.8E: Dermatomes
10.8F: Function and Physiology of the Spinal Nerves
10.09: Distribution of Spinal Nerves
10.9A: Cervical Plexus
10.9B: Brachial Plexus
10.9C: Lumbar Plexus
10.9D: Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses
10.9E: Sensory and Motor Tracts
10.10: Motor Activity
10.10A: Peripheral Motor Endings
10.10B: Overview of Motor Integration
10.11: Motor Pathways
10.11A: Organization of Motor Neuron Pathways
10.11B: The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Movement
10.11C: Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum
10.11D: Functions of the Cerebellum in Integrating Movements
11: Special Senses
11.01: The Vertebrate Visual System
11.1A: Anatomy of the Eye
11.1B: Transduction of Light
11.1C: Visual Processing
11.02: Taste and Olfaction
11.2A: Tastes and Odors
11.2B: Reception and Transduction
11.03: Hearing and Equilibrium
11.3A: Sound
11.3B: The Vestibular System
11.3C: Reception of Sound
11.3D: Transduction of Sound
12: Autonomic Nervous System
12.01: Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System
12.1A: Comparing the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
12.1B: Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
12.02: Structure of the Autonomic Nervous System
12.2A: Preganglionic Neurons
12.2B: Autonomic Ganglia
12.2C: Postganglionic Neurons
12.2D: Autonomic Plexuses
12.2E: Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) Division
12.2F: Autonomic Reflexes
12.2G: Sympathetic Nervous System
12.03: Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
12.3A: Sympathetic Responses
12.3B: Parasympathetic Responses
12.3C: Autonomic Interactions
12.3D: Control of Autonomic Nervous System Function
12.04: Neurotransmitters and Receptors
12.4A: Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
12.4B: Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
12.4C: Agonists Antagonists and Drugs
13: Endocrine System
13.01: The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
13.1A: Overview of the Adrenal Glands
13.1B: Adrenal Cortex
13.1C: Adrenal Medulla
13.02: The Pancreas
13.2A: Overview of Pancreatic Islets
13.2B: Types of Cells in the Pancreas
13.2C: Insulin Secretion and Regulation of Glucagon
13.03: Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
13.04: Stress
13.05: Overview of the Endocrine System
13.5A: Overview of the Endocrine System
13.5B: Comparing the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
13.06: Hormones
13.6A: Mechanisms of Hormone Action
13.6B: Hormone Receptors
13.6C: Chemistry of Hormones
13.6D: Transport of Hormones
13.07: Mechanisms of Hormone Action
13.7A: Direct Gene Activation and the Second-Messenger System
13.7B: Target Cell Specificity
13.7C: Onset Duration and Half-Life of Hormone Activity
13.08: Hormone Interactions
13.8A: Interactions of Hormones at Target Cells
13.09: Hormone Secretion Control
13.9A: Control of Hormone Secretion
13.10: Endocrine Glands
13.10A: Overview of Endocrine Glands
13.11: The Pituitary Gland
13.11A: Overview of the Pituitary Gland
13.11B: Control of the Pituitary Gland by the Hypothalamus
13.11C: The Anterior Pituitary
13.11D: The Posterior Pituitary
13.12: The Thyroid Gland
13.12A: Overview of the Thyroid Gland
13.12B: Formation Storage and Release of Thyroid Hormones
13.12C: Action of Thyroid Hormones
13.12D: Control of Thyroid Hormone Release
13.13: The Parathyroid Glands
13.13A: Overview of the Parathyroid Glands
13.13B: Parathyroid Hormone
14: Cardiovascular System - Blood
14.01: Overview of Blood
14.1A: Components of Blood
14.1B: Physical Characteristics and Volume
14.1C: Functions of Blood
14.1D: Blood Plasma
14.02: Red Blood Cells
14.2A: RBC Anatomy
14.2B: RBC Physiology
14.2C: RBC Life Cycle
14.03: White Blood Cells
14.3A: Types of WBCs
14.3B: WBC Function
14.3C: WBC Formation
14.04: Platelets
14.4A: Platelets
14.4B: Platelet Formation
14.05: Hemostasis
14.5A: Overview of Hemostasis
14.5B: Vascular Spasm
14.5C: Platelet Plug Formation
14.5D: Coagulation
14.5E: Role of Vitamin K
14.5F: Clot Retraction and Repair
14.5G: Fibrinolysis
14.06: Transfusions
14.6A: Transfusions of Whole Blood
14.6B: Plasma and Blood Volume Expanders
14.6C: Blood Groups and Blood Types
14.6D: Typing and Cross-Matching for Transfusions
15: Cardiovascular System- The Heart
15.01: The Heart
15.1A: Anatomy of the Heart
15.1B: Pericardium
15.1C: Layers of the Heart Walls
15.1D: Chambers of the Heart
15.1E: Great Vessels of the Heart
15.1F: Myocardial Thickness and Function
15.1G: Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart
15.02: Circulation and Heart Valves
15.2A: Heart Circulation
15.2B: Operation of Atrioventricular Valves
15.2C: Operation of Semilunar Valves
15.2D: Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
15.03: Cardiac Muscle Tissue
15.3A: Mechanism and Contraction Events of Cardiac Muscle Fibers
15.3B: Microscopic Anatomy
15.3C: Energy Requirements
15.04: Physiology of the Heart
15.4A: Electrical Events
15.4B: Electrocardiogram and Correlation of ECG Waves with Systole
15.4C: Heart Sounds
15.4D: Cardiac Cycle
15.4E: Cardiac Output
15.05: Exercise and the Heart
15.5A: Effects of Exercise on the Heart
16: Lymphatic System
16.01: Lymphatic System Structure and Function
16.1A: Structure of the Lymphatic System
16.1B: Functions of the Lymphatic System
16.02: Lymphatic Vessels
16.2A: Lymphatic Vessel Structure
16.2B: Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels
16.2C: Lymph Transport
16.2D: Lymphatic Capillaries
16.2E: Lymph Trunks and Ducts
16.03: Lymph Cells and Tissues
16.3A: Lymphoid Cells
16.3B: Lymphoid Tissue
16.3C: Lymph Nodes
16.04: Other Lymphoid Organs
16.4A: Thymus
16.4B: Spleen
16.4C: Tonsils
17: Immune System
17.01: Innate Immunity
17.1A: Skin and Mucosae (Surface Barriers)
17.1B: Phagocytes
17.1C: Natural Killer Cells
17.1D: Inflammation
17.1E: Antimicrobial Proteins
17.1F: Fever
17.02: Stress and Immunity
17.2A: Stress and Immunity
17.03: Adaptive Immunity
17.3A: Overview of Adaptive Immunity
17.3B: Types of Adaptive Immunity
17.3C: Maturation of T Cells
17.3D: Lymphocytes
17.3E: Antigen-Presenting Cells
17.04: Cytokines
17.4A: Types of Cytokines Participating in Immune Response
17.05: Antigens
17.5A: Antigens and Antigen Receptors
17.5B: Complete Antigens and Haptens
17.5C: Antigenic Determinants and Processing Pathways
17.06: Humoral Immune Response
17.6A: Clonal Selection and B-Cell Differentiation
17.6B: Structure and Function of Antibodies
17.6C: Role of the Complement System in Immunity
17.6D: Immunological Memory
17.6E: Major Histocompatibility Complex Antigens (Self-Antigens)
17.07: Cell-Mediated Immune Response
17.7A: Clonal Selection and T-Cell Differentiation
17.7B: Specific T-Cell Roles
17.7C: Active and Passive Humoral Immunity
18: Digestive System
18.01: Overview of the Digestive System
18.1A: Anatomy of the Digestive System
18.1B: Processes and Functions of the Digestive System
18.1C: Organs of the Digestive System
18.02: Nervous System of the Digestive System
18.2A: Enteric Nervous System
18.2B: Gastrointestinal Reflex Pathways
18.03: The Peritoneum
18.3A: The Peritoneum
18.04: The Alimentary Canal
18.4A: Mouth
18.4B: Pharynx
18.4C: Esophagus
18.05: Layers of the Alimentary Canal
18.5A: Mucosa
18.5B: Submucosa
18.5C: Muscularis
18.5D: Serosa
18.06: The Liver
18.6A: The Liver
18.6B: Anatomy of the Liver
18.6C: Histology of the Liver
18.6D: Blood Supply to the Liver
18.6E: Liver Function
18.6F: Bile
18.07: The Gallbladder
18.7A: The Gallbladder
18.7B: Anatomy of the Gallbladder
18.08: The Pancreas
18.8A: Pancreas
18.8B: Anatomy of the Pancreas
18.8C: Histology of the Pancreas
18.8D: Pancreatic Juice
18.09: The Small Intestine
18.9A: Anatomy of the Small Intestine
18.9B: Histology of the Small Intestine
18.9C: Digestive Processes of the Small Intestine
18.10: The Large Intestine
18.10A: Anatomy of the Large Intestine
18.10B: Histology of the Large Intestine
18.10C: Bacterial Flora
18.10D: Digestive Processes of the Large Intestine
18.10E: Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine
18.10F: Defecation Reflex
18.11: Chemical Digestion
18.11A: Mechanisms of Chemical Digestion
18.11B: Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids and Nucleic Acids
18.12: Absorption
18.12A: Absorption in the Small Intestine
18.12B: Absorption of Monosaccharides Amino Acids Dipeptides Tripeptides Lipids Electrolytes Vitamins and Water
18.13: Phases of Digestion
18.13A: Cephalic Phase
18.13B: Gastric Phase
18.14: The Stomach
18.14A: Gross Anatomy of the Stomach
18.14B: Microscopic Anatomy of the Stomach
18.14C: Digestive Properties of the Stomach
19: Urinary System
19.01: Overview of the Urinary System
19.1A: Overview of the Urinary System
19.02: Urine
19.2A: Physical Characteristics of Urine
19.2B: Chemical Composition of Urine
19.2C: Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume
19.2D: Urinalysis
19.2E: Renal Clearance
19.03: The Kidneys
19.3A: Location and External Anatomy of the Kidneys
19.3B: Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
19.3C: Supply of Blood and Nerves to the Kidneys
19.3D: Nephron Parts and Histology
19.04: Physiology of the Kidneys
19.4A: Overview of Urine Formation
19.4B: Glomerular Filtration
19.4C: Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate
19.4D: Tubular Reabsorption
19.4E: Tubular Secretion
19.05: Urine Transport Storage and Elimination
19.5A: Overview of Urine Transport Storage and Elimination
19.5B: Ureters
19.5C: Urinary Bladder
19.5D: Urethra
19.5E: Micturition and the Micturition Reflex
19.5F: Waste Management in Other Body Systems
20: Human Development and Pregnancy
20.01: Overview of Pregnancy and Human Development
20.1A: Introduction to Pregnancy and Human Development
20.02: First Week of Development
20.2A: Fertilization
20.2B: Cleavage of the Zygote
20.2C: Blastocyst Formation
20.2D: Implantation
20.03: Second Week of Development
20.3A: Trophoblast Development
20.3B: Bilaminar Embryonic Disc Development
20.3C: Amnion Development
20.3D: Yolk Sac Development
20.3E: Sinusoid Development
20.3F: Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom
20.04: Third Week of Development
20.4A: Gastrulation
20.4B: Neurulation
20.4C: Somite Development
20.4D: Development of the Cardiovascular System
20.4E: Chorionic Villi and Placental Development
20.05: Fourth Week of Development
20.5A: Fourth Week of Development
20.06: Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development
20.6A: Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development
20.07: Lactation
20.7A: Physiology of Lactation
20.08: The Fetal Period
20.8A: Fetal Development
20.8B: Teratogens
20.8C: Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
20.09: Changes to the Mother's Body During Pregnancy
20.9A: Anatomical Changes
20.9B: Metabolic Changes
20.9C: Physiological Changes
20.9D: Exercise and Pregnancy
20.10: Birth (Parturition)
20.10A: Onset of Labor
20.10B: Stages of Labor
20.10C: Adjustments of the Infant at Birth
21: APPENDIX B- Development and Aging of the Organ Systems
21.01: Development of the Heart
21.02: Development of Blood Vessels
21.03: Development of Lymphatic Tissues
21.04: Development of the Immune System
21.05: Development of the Respiratory System
21.06: Development of the Digestive System
21.07: Development of Metabolism
21.08: Development of Bodily Fluids
21.09: Development of the Reproductive System
21.10: Integumentary System Development
21.10A: Development of the Integumentary System
21.10B: Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
21.11: Bone Development
21.11A: Stages of Bone Development
21.11B: Exercise and Bone Tissue
21.11C: Bone Tissue and the Effects of Aging
21.12: Development of the Skeleton
21.12A: Development of the Skeleton
21.12B: Aging and the Skeleton
21.13: Joint Development
21.13A: Development of Joints
22: Organization at the Tissue Level
22.01: Introduction to Tissues
22.1A: Tissues in Levels of Organization
22.02: Epithelial Tissue
22.2A: Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
22.2B: Types of Epithelial Tissue
22.03: Connective Tissue
22.3A: Characteristics of Connective Tissue
22.3B: Types of Connective Tissue
22.04: Nervous Tissue
22.4A: Characteristics of Nervous Tissue
22.4B: Types of Nervous Tissue
22.05: Muscular Tissue
22.5A: Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
22.06: Tissue Membranes
22.6A: Epithelial Membranes
22.6B: Synovial Membranes
23: Skeletal System
23.01: Overview of the Skeletal System
23.1A: Overview of the Musculoskeletal System
23.1B: The Axial Skeleton
23.1C: The Appendicular Skeleton
23.02: Cartilage
23.2A: Structure Type and Location of Cartilage
23.2B: Cartilage Growth
23.03: Introduction to Bone
23.3A: Gross Anatomy
23.3B: Supply of Blood and Nerves to Bone
23.3C: Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
23.3D: Chemical Composition of Bone
23.04: Bone Formation
23.4A: Embryonic and Fetal Bone Formation
23.4B: Postnatal Bone Growth
23.4C: Bone Remodeling
23.4D: Bone Repair
23.05: Bone and Calcium
23.5A: Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
24: Cardiovascular System- Blood Vessels
24.01: Circulatory Routes
24.1A: The Aorta and Its Branches
24.1B: Ascending Aorta
24.1C: Arch of the Aorta
24.1D: Thoracic Aorta
24.1E: Abdominal Aorta
24.1F: Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
24.02: Blood Vessel Structure and Function
24.2A: Blood Vessel Structure
24.2B: Blood Vessel Function
24.03: Arteries
24.3A: Artery Function
24.3B: Elastic Arteries
24.3C: Muscular Arteries
24.3D: Anastomoses
24.3E: Arterioles
24.3F: Capillaries
24.04: The Venous System
24.4A: Venules
24.4B: Veins
24.05: Physiology of Circulation
24.5A: Introduction to Blood Flow Pressure and Resistance
24.5B: Distribution of Blood
24.06: Systemic Blood Pressure
24.6A: Introduction to Blood Pressure
24.6B: Arterial Blood Pressure
24.6C: Venous Blood Pressure
24.07: Control of Blood Pressure
24.7A: Role of the Cardiovascular Center
24.7B: Short-Term Neural Control
24.7C: Checking Circulation
24.7D: Short-Term Chemical Control
24.7E: Long-Term Renal Regulation
24.7F: Pulse
24.7G: Measuring Blood Pressure
24.7H: Extremes in Blood Pressure
24.08: Blood Flow Through the Body
24.8A: Velocity of Blood Flow
24.8B: Local Regulation of Blood Flow
24.8C: Blood Flow in Skeletal Muscle
24.8D: Blood Flow in the Brain
24.8E: Blood Flow in the Skin
24.8F: Blood Flow in the Lungs
24.8G: Blood Flow in the Heart
24.8H: Hepatic Portal Circulation
24.09: Capillary Exchange
24.9A: Capillary Dynamics
24.9B: Transcytosis
24.9C: Bulk Flow- Filtration and Reabsorption
24.10: Circulatory Shock
24.10A: Types of Shock
24.10B: Homeostatic Responses to Shock
24.10C: Signs and Symptoms of Shock
25: Respiratory System
25.01: Respiration Control
25.1A: Neural Mechanisms (Respiratory Center)
25.1B: Neural Mechanisms (Cortex)
25.1C: Chemoreceptor Regulation of Breathing
25.1D: Proprioceptor Regulation of Breathing
25.02: Respiratory Adjustments
25.2A: Adjustments During Exercise
25.2B: Adjustments at High Altitude
25.03: Overview of the Respiratory System
25.3A: The Reason for Breathing
25.3B: Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
25.04: Conducting Zone
25.4A: Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
25.4B: Pharynx
25.4C: Larynx
25.4D: Structures Used in Voice Production
25.4E: Trachea
25.05: Respiratory Zone
25.5A: Bronchi and Subdivisions
25.5B: Alveoli
25.06: The Lungs and Pleurae
25.6A: Lungs
25.6B: Lobes Fissures and Lobules
25.6C: Blood Supply to the Lungs
25.07: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
25.7A: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation- Surface Tension of Alveolar Fluid
25.7B: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation- Compliance of the Lungs
25.7C: Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation- Airway Resistance
25.08: Nonrespiratory Lung Functions
25.8A: Lung Capacity and Volume
25.8B: Nonrespiratory Air Movements
25.09: Gas Laws
25.9A: Daltons Law of Partial Pressure
25.9B: Henrys Law
25.10: Gas Exchange
25.10A: External Respiration
25.10B: Internal Respiration
25.10C: Oxygen Transport
25.10D: Carbon Dioxide Transport
25.11: Mechanics of Breathing
25.11A: Pressure Changes During Pulmonary Ventilation
25.11B: Inspiration
25.11C: Expiration
25.11D: Breathing Patterns
26: Nutrition and Metabolism
26.01: Diet Digestion and Energy Storage Regulation
26.1A: Hormonal Responses to Food
26.1B: Neural Responses to Food
26.1C: Food Energy and ATP
26.02: Nutrition
26.2A: Digestive Systems
26.2B: Carbohydrates- Sources Uses in the Body and Dietary Requirements
26.2C: Lipids- Sources Uses in the Body and Dietary Requirements
26.2D: Proteins- Sources Uses in the Body and Dietary Requirements
26.2E: Food Requirements and Essential Nutrients
26.03: Lipids
26.3A: Lipid Molecules
26.3B: Phospholipids
26.3C: Steroids
26.04: Proteins
26.4A: Types and Functions of Proteins
26.4B: Amino Acids
26.4C: Protein Structure
26.05: Metabolism of Nutrients
26.5A: Connecting Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism
26.5B: Connecting Proteins to Glucose Metabolism
26.06: Carbohydrates
26.6A: Carbohydrate Molecules
26.6B: Importance of Carbohydrates
26.07: Metabolic Reactions
26.7A: Breakdown of Pyruvate
26.7B: Citric Acid Cycle
26.7C: Importance of Glycolysis
26.7D: Electron Transport Chain
26.7E: ATP Yield
26.7F: Control of Catabolic Pathways
26.7G: Transforming Chemical Energy
26.08: Metabolic Body States
26.8A: Catabolic-Anabolic Steady State
26.8B: Absorptive State
26.8C: Postabsorptive State
26.09: Metabolism and the Liver
26.9A: Cholesterol Metabolism
26.9B: Regulation of Blood Cholesterol Levels
26.10: Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
26.10A: Homeostatic Process
26.10B: Homeostasis- Thermoregulation
26.10C: Heat Conservation and Dissipation
27: Body Fluids and Acid-Base Balance
27.01: Water Balance
27.1A: Regulation of Water Intake
27.1B: Regulation of Water Output
27.1C: Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals- The Urea Cycle
27.1D: Water Balance Disorders
27.02: Body Fluids
27.2A: Water Content in the Body
27.2B: Fluid Compartments
27.2C: Body Fluid Composition
27.2D: Movement of Fluid Among Compartments
27.03: Electrolyte Balance
27.3A: Sodium Electrolytes and Fluid Balance
27.3B: Sodium Balance Regulation
27.3C: Potassium Balance Regulation
27.3D: Calcium and Phosphate Balance Regulation
27.3E: Anion Regulation
27.04: Acid-Base Balance
27.4A: pH Buffers Acids and Bases
27.4B: Chemical Buffer Systems
27.4C: Regulation of H by the Lungs
27.4D: The Role of the Kidneys in Acid-Base Balance
28: The Reproductive System
28.01: Overview of the Reproductive System
28.1A: Overview of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
28.02: Meiosis
28.2A: Introduction to Meiosis
28.2B: Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
28.03: The Male Reproductive System
28.3A: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
28.3B: Scrotum
28.3C: Testes
28.3D: Penis
28.3E: Testes Ducts
28.3F: Accessory Sex Glands
28.04: Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
28.4A: Male Sexual Response
28.4B: Sperm
28.4C: Spermatogenesis
28.4D: Semen
28.4E: Hormonal Regulation of the Male Reproductive System
28.05: The Female Reproductive System
28.5A: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
28.5B: Ovaries
28.5C: Uterus
28.5D: Female Duct System
28.5E: Vagina
28.5F: Vulva
28.5G: Perineum
28.5H: Mammary Glands
28.06: Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
28.6A: Oogenesis
28.6B: Ovarian Cycle
28.6C: Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
28.6D: Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
28.6E: Extrauterine Effects of Estrogens and Progesterone
28.6F: Female Sexual Response
29: Reproduction Chromosomes and Meiosis
29.01: Exceptions to Mendelian Inheritance
29.1A: Mendels Laws of Heredity
29.02: The Link Between Genotype and Phenotype
29.2A: The Process and Purpose of Gene Expression Regulation
29.2B: The Relationship Between Genes and Proteins
29.2C: Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
29.03: Inherited Variation
29.3A: Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
29.04: Chromosomal Behavior in Meiosis and Fertilization
29.4A: The Structure and Sequence of DNA
29.05: DNA
29.5A: DNA and RNA
29.5B: The DNA Double Helix
29.5C: DNA Packaging
29.5D: Types of RNA
29.06: Cell Division
29.6A: The Role of the Cell Cycle
29.6B: Genomic DNA and Chromosomes
29.6C: Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
29.07: Sources of Genetic Variation
29.7A: Genetic Variation
29.7B: Mendels Law of Segregation
29.7C: Mendels Law of Independent Assortment
29.08: Complex Inheritance Patterns
29.8A: The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross
29.8B: Phenotypes and Genotypes
29.8C: Mendels Model System
29.09: Patterns of Inheritance
29.9A: Lethal Inheritance Patterns
29.9B: Sex-Linked Traits
29.10: Genetic Disequilibrium
29.10A: Genetic Linkage and Distances
29.10B: Chromosomal Structural Rearrangements