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Mineralogy

Minerals are our planet. They form the Earth and the bedrock that we live on, making up all of Earth’s rocks and sediments, and they are important components in soils. So, they literally are the foundations for our lives. Perhaps because they are ubiquitous, most people don’t even notice them or consider that all rock is made of minerals.

Geology Geosciences

Author: Dexter Perkins et al.
Publisher: University of North Dakota
Source: LibreTexts
License: CC BY-NC-SA
Language: EN
Category: Basic Sciences

Read online Download PDF (open licence)

Contents· 324 sections

01: Introduction
1.01: The Importance of Minerals
1.1.01: Mineral Commodities
1.1.02: Ore Minerals
1.1.03: The Importance of Crystallography
1.02: Definition of a Mineral
1.2.01: Traditional Definition
1.2.02: Matter and Minerals
1.2.03: Minerals and Mineral Varieties
1.2.04: Synthetic Minerals and Simulants
1.2.05: Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Mineral Materials
1.2.06: Biominerals
1.2.07: Anthropogenic Minerals
1.03: Elements Minerals and Rocks
1.04: Classifying Minerals
1.4.01: Subclasses Groups and Smaller Divisions
1.4.02: An Example- Pyroxenes
02: Mineral Chemistry
2.01: Elements and Minerals
2.02: Elements and the Periodic Table
2.2.01: Groups
2.2.02: Atomic Number and Mass
2.2.03: Moles
2.2.04: Radioactive Minerals
2.2.05: Periods
2.03: Ions
2.3.01: Typical Valences
2.04: Bonding in Minerals
2.4.01: Ionic Bonds
2.4.1.01: Common Cations and Anions
2.4.02: Covalent Bonds
2.4.03: Metallic Bonds
2.4.04: Other Kinds of Bonds
2.4.05: Ionic Covalent and Metallic Crystals
2.4.5.01: Bonding and Mineral Properties
2.05: Compositional Variation in Minerals
2.5.01: How to Normalize a Mineral Analysis
2.06: Common Minerals
2.6.01: Common Elements Make Up the Common Minerals
03: Mineral Properties
3.01: Naming Minerals
3.02: Mineral Identification
3.03: Crystal Shape
3.3.01: Crystal Forms
3.3.02: Mineral Habit
3.04: Mineral Appearance
3.4.01: Luster
3.4.02: Diaphaneity
3.4.03: Color
3.4.04: Streak
3.4.05: Luminescence
3.4.06: Play of Colors
3.05: Strength and Breaking
3.5.01: Tenacity
3.5.02: Cleavage Fracture and Parting
3.5.03: Hardness
3.06: Density and Specific Gravity
3.07: Magnetism
3.08: Electrical Properties
3.09: Reaction to Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
3.10: Additional Properties
04: Crystals and Crystallization
4.01: Crystalline and Noncrystalline Solids
4.02: Forming Crystals
4.2.01: Igneous Minerals
4.2.02: Aqueous Minerals
4.2.03: Hydrothermal Minerals
4.2.04: Metamorphic Minerals
4.2.05: Weathering and Diagenesis
4.03: Mineral Stability and Polymorphs
4.04: Factors Controlling Crystal Size and Perfection
4.4.01: Time and Temperature
4.4.02: Ostwald Ripening
4.4.03: Organized Atomic Arrangements
4.4.04: Crystal Defects
4.4.05: Crystal Zoning
4.4.06: Crystal Twinning
4.05: Life Spans of Minerals
05: Optical Mineralogy
5.01: Introduction to Mineral Optics
5.02: Light and the Properties of Light
5.2.01: Interference
5.2.02: The Velocity of Light in Crystals and the Refractive Index
5.03: Polarization of Light
5.3.01: Polarized Light
5.3.02: Crossed Polars
5.3.03: Polarized Light Vibrating at an Angle to a Polarizing Filter
5.04: Petrographic Microscopes
5.4.01: The Components of a Microscope
5.4.02: Plane (PP) Polarized Light and Cross Polarized (XP)Light
5.05: More About Uniaxial and Biaxial Minerals
5.5.01: Extinction Angles
5.5.02: Accessory Plates and the Sign of Elongation
5.06: Interference Figures
5.6.01: Uniaxial Interference Figures
5.6.02: Biaxial Interference Figures
5.07: Identifying Minerals and Mineral Properties in Thin Section
06: Igneous Rocks and Silicate Minerals
6.01: Magmas and Igneous Rocks
6.1.01: Where Do Igneous Rocks Occur
6.02: Compositions of Igneous Rocks
6.2.01: Mafic and Silicic Magmas
6.2.02: Volatiles
6.03: Crystallization of Magmas
6.3.01: Equilibrium Between Crystals and Melt
6.3.02: Bowens Reaction Series
6.3.03: Disequilibrium
6.04: Silicate Minerals
6.4.01: Summary - Silicate Minerals and Igneous Rocks
6.4.02: SiO2 Polymorphs
6.4.03: Feldspars
6.4.04: Feldspathoids
6.4.05: Micas
6.4.06: Chain Silicates
6.4.07: Pyroxenes
6.4.08: Amphiboles
6.4.09: Ring Silicates and Paired Tetrahedral Silicates
6.4.10: Olivine Group Minerals
6.05: Naming Igneous Rocks
6.06: Mineral Modes
6.07: Common Types of Igneous Rock
6.7.01: Silicic Igneous Rocks (20 Quartz)
6.7.02: Mafic and Intermediate Igneous Rocks (0 to 20 Quartz)
6.7.03: Ultramafic Igneous Rocks
07: Sedimentary Minerals and Sedimentary Rocks
7.01: Weathering
7.1.01: Two Kinds of Weathering
7.1.02: Results of Weathering
7.1.03: Ease of Weathering
7.02: Siliciclastic Sediments
7.03: Transportation Deposition and Lithification
7.3.01: Clastic Sedimentation
7.3.02: Chemical Sedimentation
7.04: Sedimentary Minerals
7.4.01: Common Minerals
7.4.02: Clay Minerals
7.4.03: Carbonate Minerals
7.4.04: Sulfate Minerals
7.4.05: Halides
7.4.06: Zeolites
7.4.07: Chert
7.05: Common Sedimentary Rocks
7.5.01: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
7.5.02: Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
7.5.03: Organic Sedimentary Rocks
7.06: Sedimentary Environments and Facies
08: Metamorphic Minerals and Metamorphic Rocks
8.01: Different Kinds of Metamorphism
8.1.01: 8.1.1 Regional Metamorphism
8.1.02: Contact Metamorphism
8.1.03: Hydrothermal Metamorphism
8.1.04: Dynamic Metamorphism
8.1.05: Impact Metamorphism
8.1.06: Rocks of Different Metamorphic Grade
8.1.07: Prograde and Retrograde Metamorphism
8.02: Pressure and Temperature
8.2.01: 8.2.1 Heat and Temperature
8.2.02: Pressure and Depth
8.2.03: Directed Stress
8.2.04: Metamorphic Fluids
8.03: Metamorphic Textures
8.3.01: Grain size and Porphyroblasts
8.3.02: Lineations and Foliations
8.3.03: Slate
8.3.04: Phyllite
8.3.05: Schist
8.3.06: Gneiss
8.3.07: Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
8.04: Metamorphic Reactions
8.4.01: Different Kinds of Reactions
8.4.02: Metamorphic Phase Diagrams
8.05: Metamorphic Rocks of Different Compositions
8.06: Metasedimentary Rocks
8.6.01: Metamorphosed Pelitic Rocks (Metapelites)
8.6.02: Metamorphosed Sandstones (Metapsammites)
8.6.03: Metamorphosed Limestones and Dolostones (Marbles)
8.6.04: Metamorphosed Iron Formations
8.07: Metaigneous Rocks and Minerals
8.7.01: Metamorphosed Granitic Rocks
8.7.02: Metamorphosed Mafic Rocks (Metabasites)
8.7.03: Metamorphosed Ultramafic Rocks
8.08: High-Pressure Rocks and Minerals
09: Ore Deposits and Economic Minerals
9.01: Mineral Commodities
9.1.01: Mineral Resources
9.1.02: The History of Mining
9.1.03: Mineral Deposits Ore Deposits and Mining
9.1.04: Natural Abundances of Elements
9.1.05: Worldwide Distribution
9.02: Ore Minerals
9.2.01: Native Elements- Metals Semimetals and Nonmetals
9.2.02: Sulfides and Sulfosalts
9.2.03: Oxides and Hydroxides
9.2.04: Gems and Gem Minerals
9.03: Types of Ore Deposits
9.3.01: Magmatic Ore Deposits
9.3.02: Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
9.3.03: Sedimentary Ore Deposits
10: Crystal Morphology and Symmetry
10.01: Symmetry
10.1.01: Introduction
10.1.02: Identifying Symmetry
10.1.03: Mirror Planes
10.1.04: Rotational Symmetry
10.1.05: Inversion Centers
10.1.06: Symmetry Operates on Everything
10.1.07: Symmetry Is a Property
10.02: Stereo Diagrams
10.2.01: Symmetry on Stereo Diagrams
10.03: From Points to Crystal Faces and Forms
10.3.01: Special Forms and General Forms
10.3.02: Open Forms and Closed Forms
10.04: Combinations of Symmetry Elements- Point Groups
10.4.01: Special Angles and General Angles
10.05: Point Groups and Crystal Systems
10.5.01: Forms and Point Groups
10.5.02: Characteristics of Crystals Belonging to the Different Crystal Systems
11: Crystallography
11.01: Observations in the Seventeenth through Nineteenth Centuries
11.02: Translational Symmetry
11.03: Unit Cells and Lattices in Two Dimension
11.3.01: Motifs and Unit Cells
11.3.02: What are the Possible Plane Lattices
11.3.03: How May Motifs and Lattices Combine
11.04: Unit Cells and Lattices in Three Dimensions
11.4.01: Bravais Lattices
11.4.02: Unit Cell Symmetry and Crystal Symmetry
11.05: Symmetry of Three Dimensional Atomic Arrangements
11.5.01: Space Group Operators
11.06: Space Groups
11.07: Crystal Habit and Crystal Faces
11.08: Quantitative Aspects of Unit Cells Points Lines and Planes
11.8.01: Unit Cell Parameters and Crystallographic Axes
11.8.02: Points in Unit Cells
11.8.03: Lines and Directions in Crystals
11.8.04: Planes in Crystals
11.09: Miller Indices
11.10: The Miller Indices of Planes within a Crystal Structure
11.11: Confusing Notations
11.12: Crystal Forms and the Miller Index
11.12.01: Zones and Zone Axes
11.12.02: General Forms and Special Forms
12: X-ray Diffraction and Mineral Analysis
12.01: X-ray Diffraction
12.1.01: Intensity of Diffraction
12.1.02: Intensity of Diffraction- Halite
12.1.03: X-ray Patterns Symmetry and Mineral Identification
12.1.04: Extinctions
12.1.05: Indexing Patterns and Determining Cell Parameters
12.1.06: Uncertainties
12.1.07: Single Crystal Diffraction
12.1.08: The Discovery of X-rays and Diffraction
12.1.09: What are X-rays
12.1.10: Interactions of X-Rays and Atoms
12.1.11: Interference of X-Ray Waves
12.1.12: Diffraction by a Row of Atoms
12.1.13: Diffraction by Planes of Atoms
12.1.14: Routine X-Ray Analysis- Powder Diffraction
12.1.15: Data and Processing
12.1.16: Effects of Different X-ray Wavelengths
12.02: Obtaining a Mineral Analysis
12.2.01: Electron Microscopes
12.2.02: 12.2.2 Electron Microprobes
12.2.03: Other Analytical Techniques
13: Crystal Structures
13.01: The Impact of X-ray Crystallography
13.02: Ionic Crystals
13.2.01: Ionic Radii
13.2.02: Coordination Number
13.2.03: Different Kinds of Bonding
13.03: Closest Packing
13.3.01: Closest Packing in Two Dimensions
13.3.02: Packing in Three Dimensions
13.3.03: Exceptions to Closest Packing
13.04: Paulings Rules
13.4.01: Paulings First Rule
13.4.02: Paulings Second Rule
13.4.03: Paulings Third Rule
13.4.04: Paulings Fourth Rule
13.4.05: Paulings Fifth Rule
13.05: Oxygen and Other Common Elements
13.06: Silicate Structures in General
13.6.01: Silicate Classification
13.6.02: Chemical Trends
13.6.03: Complex Atomic Arrangements
13.6.04: Elemental Substitutions in Silicates
13.6.05: Melting and Weathering Relationships
13.07: Structures of the Basic Silicate Subclasses
13.7.01: Framework Silicates
13.7.02: Sheet Silicates
13.7.03: Single Chain Silicates (Pyroxenes and Pyroxenoids)
13.7.04: Double Chain Silicates (Amphiboles)
13.7.05: Ring Silicates
13.7.06: Paired Tetrahedral Silicates
13.7.07: Isolated Tetrahedral Silicates
13.08: Structures and Chemistry of Nonsilicates
14: Mineral Descriptions
14.01: Silicate Class
14.1.01: Silicate Class - Framework Silicates
14.1.02: Silicate Class - Sheet Silicates
14.1.03: Silicate Class - Chain Silicates
14.1.04: Silicate Class - Ring Silicates
14.1.05: Silicate Class - Isolated Tetrahedral Silicates
14.1.06: Paired Tetrahedral Silicates
14.02: Native Elements
14.03: Sulfide Minerals
14.3.01: Tetrahedral Sulfides and Arsenides
14.3.02: Octahedral Sulfide Group Minerals
14.3.03: Other Sulfide Minerals
14.04: Halide Minerals
14.05: Oxide Minerals
14.5.01: Tetrahedral and Octahedral Oxides
14.5.02: Spinels and other Oxides with Mixed Coordination
14.06: Hydroxide Minerals
14.07: Carbonates and Nitrates
14.7.01: Calcite Group Minerals
14.7.02: Dolomite Group Minerals
14.7.03: Aragonite Group Minerals
14.7.04: Other Carbonate Minerals
14.7.05: Nitrate Group Minerals
14.08: Borate Minerals
14.09: Sulfate Minerals
14.10: Tungstates Molybdates and Chromates
14.11: Phosphates Arsenates and Vanadates