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General Biology

Introductory and General Biology Biology

Author: Boundless
Publisher: LibreTexts
Source: LibreTexts
License: CC BY-SA
Language: EN
Category: Basic Sciences

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Contents· 795 sections

01: The Study of Life
1.01: The Science of Biology - Introduction to the Study of Biology
1.02: The Science of Biology - Scientific Reasoning
1.03: The Science of Biology - The Scientific Method
1.04: The Science of Biology - Basic and Applied Science
1.05: The Science of Biology - Publishing Scientific Work
1.06: The Science of Biology - Branches and Subdisciplines of Biology
1.07: Themes and Concepts of Biology - Properties of Life
1.08: Themes and Concepts of Biology - Levels of Organization of Living Things
1.09: Themes and Concepts of Biology - The Diversity of Life
02: The Chemical Foundation of Life
2.01: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Overview of Atomic Structure
2.02: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Atomic Number and Mass Number
2.03: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Isotopes
2.04: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - The Periodic Table
2.05: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Electron Shells and the Bohr Model
2.06: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Electron Orbitals
2.07: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Chemical Reactions and Molecules
2.08: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Ions and Ionic Bonds
2.09: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions
2.10: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - Hydrogen Bonding and Van der Waals Forces
2.11: Water - Waters Polarity
2.12: Water - Gas Liquid and Solid Water
2.13: Water - Heat of Vaporization
2.14: Water - High Heat Capacity
2.15: Water - Waters Solvent Properties
2.16: Water - Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
2.17: Water - pH Buffers Acids and Bases
2.18: Carbon - The Chemical Basis for Life
2.19: Carbon - Hydrocarbons
2.20: Carbon - Organic Isomers
2.21: Carbon - Organic Enantiomers
2.22: Carbon - Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
2.23: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules - Types of Biological Macromolecules
2.24: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules - Dehydration Synthesis
2.25: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules - Hydrolysis
03: Biological Macromolecules
3.01: Carbohydrates - Carbohydrate Molecules
3.02: Carbohydrates - Importance of Carbohydrates
3.03: Lipid Molecules - Introduction
3.04: Lipid Molecules - Waxes
3.05: Lipid Molecules - Phospholipids
3.06: Lipid Molecules - Steroids
3.07: Proteins - Types and Functions of Proteins
3.08: Proteins - Amino Acids
3.09: Proteins - Protein Structure
3.10: Proteins - Denaturation and Protein Folding
3.11: Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA
3.12: Nucleic Acids - The DNA Double Helix
3.13: Nucleic Acids - DNA Packaging
3.14: Nucleic Acids - Types of RNA
04: Cell Structure
4.01: Studying Cells - Cells as the Basic Unit of Life
4.02: Studying Cells - Microscopy
4.03: Studying Cells - Cell Theory
4.04: Studying Cells - Cell Size
4.05: Prokaryotic Cells - Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells
4.06: Eukaryotic Cells - Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
4.07: Eukaryotic Cells - The Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm
4.08: Eukaryotic Cells - The Nucleus and Ribosomes
4.09: Eukaryotic Cells - Mitochondria
4.10: Eukaryotic Cells - Comparing Plant and Animal Cells
4.11: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - Vesicles and Vacuoles
4.12: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - The Endoplasmic Reticulum
4.13: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - The Golgi Apparatus
4.14: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - Lysosomes
4.15: The Endomembrane System and Proteins - Peroxisomes
4.16: The Cytoskeleton - Microfilaments
4.17: The Cytoskeleton - Intermediate Filaments and Microtubules
4.18: Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities - Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
4.19: Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities - Intercellular Junctions
05: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
5.01: Components and Structure - Components of Plasma Membranes
5.02: Components and Structure - Fluid Mosaic Model
5.03: Components and Structure - Membrane Fluidity
5.04: Passive Transport - The Role of Passive Transport
5.05: Passive Transport - Selective Permeability
5.06: Passive Transport - Diffusion
5.07: Passive Transport - Facilitated Transport
5.08: Passive Transport - Osmosis
5.09: Passive Transport - Tonicity
5.10: Active Transport - Electrochemical Gradient
5.11: Active Transport - Primary Active Transport
5.12: Active Transport - Secondary Active Transport
5.13: Bulk Transport - Endocytosis
5.14: Bulk Transport - Exocytosis
06: Metabolism
6.01: Energy and Metabolism - The Role of Energy and Metabolism
6.02: Energy and Metabolism - Types of Energy
6.03: Energy and Metabolism - Metabolic Pathways
6.04: Energy and Metabolism - Metabolism of Carbohydrates
6.05: Potential Kinetic Free and Activation Energy - Free Energy
6.06: Potential Kinetic Free and Activation Energy - The First Law of Thermodynamics
6.07: Potential Kinetic Free and Activation Energy - The Second Law of Thermodynamics
6.08: Potential Kinetic Free and Activation Energy - Activation Energy
6.09: ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
6.10: Enzymes - Active Site and Substrate Specificity
6.11: Enzymes - Control of Metabolism Through Enzyme Regulation
07: Cellular Respiration
7.01: Energy in Living Systems - Transforming Chemical Energy
7.02: Energy in Living Systems - Electrons and Energy
7.03: Energy in Living Systems - ATP in Metabolism
7.04: Glycolysis - Importance of Glycolysis
7.05: Glycolysis - The Energy-Requiring Steps of Glycolysis
7.06: Glycolysis - The Energy-Releasing Steps of Glycolysis
7.07: Glycolysis - Outcomes of Glycolysis
7.08: Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle - Breakdown of Pyruvate
7.09: Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle - Acetyl CoA to CO
7.10: Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle - Citric Acid Cycle
7.11: Oxidative Phosphorylation - Electron Transport Chain
7.12: Oxidative Phosphorylation - Chemiosmosis and Oxidative Phosphorylation
7.13: Oxidative Phosphorylation - ATP Yield
7.14: Metabolism without Oxygen - Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
7.15: Connections of Carbohydrate Protein and Lipid Metabolic Pathways - Connecting Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism
7.16: Connections of Carbohydrate Protein and Lipid Metabolic Pathways - Connecting Proteins to Glucose Metabolism
7.17: Connections of Carbohydrate Protein and Lipid Metabolic Pathways - Connecting Lipids to Glucose Metabolism
7.18: Regulation of Cellular Respiration - Regulatory Mechanisms for Cellular Respiration
7.19: Regulation of Cellular Respiration - Control of Catabolic Pathways
08: Photosynthesis
8.01: Overview of Photosynthesis - The Purpose and Process of Photosynthesis
8.02: Overview of Photosynthesis - Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis
8.03: Overview of Photosynthesis - The Two Parts of Photosynthesis
8.04: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis - Introduction to Light Energy
8.05: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis - Absorption of Light
8.06: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis - Processes of the Light-Dependent Reactions
8.07: The Light-Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis - AM and C4 Photosynthesis
8.08: The Light-Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis - The Calvin Cycle
8.09: The Light-Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis - The Carbon Cycle
09: Cell Communication
9.01: Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors - Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
9.02: Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors - Forms of Signaling
9.03: Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors - Types of Receptors
9.04: Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors - Signaling Molecules
9.05: Propagation of the Cellular Signal - Binding Initiates a Signaling Pathway
9.06: Propagation of the Cellular Signal - Methods of Intracellular Signaling
9.07: Response to the Cellular Signal - Termination of the Signal Cascade
9.08: Response to the Cellular Signal - Cell Signaling and Gene Expression
9.09: Response to the Cellular Signal - Cell Signaling and Cellular Metabolism
9.10: Response to the Cellular Signal - Cell Signaling and Cell Growth
9.11: Response to the Cellular Signal - Cell Signaling and Cell Death
9.12: Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms - Signaling in Yeast
9.13: Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms - Signaling in Bacteria
10: Cell Reproduction
10.01: Cell Division
10.1A: The Role of the Cell Cycle
10.1B: Genomic DNA and Chromosomes
10.1C: Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
10.02: The Cell Cycle
10.2A: Interphase
10.2B: The Mitotic Phase and the G0 Phase
10.03: Control of the Cell Cycle
10.3A: Regulation of the Cell Cycle by External Events
10.3B: Regulation of the Cell Cycle at Internal Checkpoints
10.3C: Regulator Molecules of the Cell Cycle
10.04: Cancer and the Cell Cycle
10.4A: Proto-oncogenes
10.4B: Tumor Suppressor Genes
10.05: Prokaryotic Cell Division
10.5A: Binary Fission
11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
11.01: The Process of Meiosis - Introduction to Meiosis
11.02: The Process of Meiosis - Meiosis I
11.03: The Process of Meiosis - Meiosis II
11.04: The Process of Meiosis - Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
11.05: Sexual Reproduction - Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
11.06: Sexual Reproduction - Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms
12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
12.01: Mendels Experiments and the Laws of Probability
12.1A: Introduction to Mendelian Inheritance
12.1B: Mendels Model System
12.1C: Mendelian Crosses
12.1D: Garden Pea Characteristics Revealed the Basics of Heredity
12.1E: Rules of Probability for Mendelian Inheritance
12.02: Patterns of Inheritance
12.2A: Genes as the Unit of Heredity
12.2B: Phenotypes and Genotypes
12.2C: The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross
12.2D: Alternatives to Dominance and Recessiveness
12.2E: Sex-Linked Traits
12.2F: Lethal Inheritance Patterns
12.03: Laws of Inheritance
12.3A: Mendels Laws of Heredity
12.3B: Mendels Law of Dominance
12.3C: Mendels Law of Segregation
12.3D: Mendels Law of Independent Assortment
12.3E: Genetic Linkage and Violation of the Law of Independent Assortment
12.3F: Epistasis
13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance
13.01: Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage
13.1A: Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
13.1B: Genetic Linkage and Distances
13.1C: Identification of Chromosomes and Karyotypes
13.02: Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
13.2A: Disorders in Chromosome Number
13.2B: Chromosomal Structural Rearrangements
13.2C: X-Inactivation
14: DNA Structure and Function
14.01: Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
14.1A: Discovery of DNA
14.1B: Modern Applications of DNA
14.02: DNA Structure and Sequencing
14.2A: The Structure and Sequence of DNA
14.2B: DNA Sequencing Techniques
14.03: DNA Replication
14.3A: Basics of DNA Replication
14.3B: DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
14.3C: DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
14.3D: Telomere Replication
14.04: DNA Repair
14.4A: DNA Repair
15: Genes and Proteins
15.01: The Genetic Code - The Relationship Between Genes and Proteins
15.02: The Genetic Code - The Central Dogma- DNA Encodes RNA and RNA Encodes Protein
15.03: Prokaryotic Transcription - Transcription in Prokaryotes
15.04: Prokaryotic Transcription - Initiation of Transcription in Prokaryotes
15.05: Prokaryotic Transcription - Elongation and Termination in Prokaryotes
15.06: Eukaryotic Transcription - Initiation of Transcription in Eukaryotes
15.07: Eukaryotic Transcription - Elongation and Termination in Eukaryotes
15.08: RNA Processing in Eukaryotes - mRNA Processing
15.09: RNA Processing in Eukaryotes - Processing of tRNAs and rRNAs
15.10: Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis - The Protein Synthesis Machinery
15.11: Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis - The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
15.12: Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis - Protein Folding Modification and Targeting
16: Gene Expression
16.01: Regulation of Gene Expression - The Process and Purpose of Gene Expression Regulation
16.02: Regulation of Gene Expression - Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Gene Expression
16.03: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation - The trp Operon- A Repressor Operon
16.04: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation - Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP)- An Activator Regulator
16.05: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation - The lac Operon- An Inducer Operon
16.06: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation - The Promoter and the Transcription Machinery
16.07: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation - Transcriptional Enhancers and Repressors
16.08: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation - Epigenetic Control- Regulating Access to Genes within the Chromosome
16.09: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation - RNA Splicing
16.10: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation - The Initiation Complex and Translation Rate
16.11: Eukaryotic Gene Regulation - Regulating Protein Activity and Longevity
16.12: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Gene Expression in Stem Cells
16.13: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Cellular Differentiation
16.14: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Mechanics of Cellular Differentation
16.15: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Establishing Body Axes during Development
16.16: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Gene Expression for Spatial Positioning
16.17: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Cell Migration in Multicellular Organisms
16.18: Regulating Gene Expression in Cell Development - Programmed Cell Death
16.19: Cancer and Gene Regulation - Altered Gene Expression in Cancer
16.20: Cancer and Gene Regulation - Epigenetic Alterations in Cancer
16.21: Cancer and Gene Regulation - Cancer and Transcriptional Control
16.22: Cancer and Gene Regulation - Cancer and Post-Transcriptional Control
16.23: Cancer and Gene Regulation - Cancer and Translational Control
17: Biotechnology and Genomics
17.01: Biotechnology
17.1A: Biotechnology
17.1B: Basic Techniques to Manipulate Genetic Material (DNA and RNA)
17.1C: Molecular and Cellular Cloning
17.1D: Reproductive Cloning
17.1E: Genetic Engineering
17.1F: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
17.1G: Biotechnology in Medicine
17.1H: Production of Vaccines Antibiotics and Hormones
17.02: Mapping Genomes
17.2A: Genetic Maps
17.2B: Physical Maps and Integration with Genetic Maps
17.03: Whole-Genome Sequencing
17.3A: Strategies Used in Sequencing Projects
17.3B: Use of Whole-Genome Sequences of Model Organisms
17.3C: Uses of Genome Sequences
17.04: Applying Genomics
17.4A: Predicting Disease Risk at the Individual Level
17.4B: Pharmacogenomics Toxicogenomics and Metagenomics
17.4C: Genomics and Biofuels
17.05: Genomics and Proteomics
17.5A: Genomics and Proteomics
17.5B: Basic Techniques in Protein Analysis
17.5C: Cancer Proteomics
18: Evolution and the Origin of Species
18.01: Understanding Evolution
18.1A: What is Evolution
18.1B: Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
18.1C: The Galapagos Finches and Natural Selection
18.1D: Processes and Patterns of Evolution
18.1E: Evidence of Evolution
18.1F: Misconceptions of Evolution
18.02: Formation of New Species
18.2A: The Biological Species Concept
18.2B: Reproductive Isolation
18.2C: Speciation
18.2D: Allopatric Speciation
18.2E: Sympatric Speciation
18.03: Hybrid Zones and Rates of Speciation
18.3A: Hybrid Zones
18.3B: Varying Rates of Speciation
18.04: Evolution of Genomes
18.4A: Genomic Similiarities between Distant Species
18.4B: Genome Evolution
18.4C: Whole-Genome Duplication
18.4D: Gene Duplications and Divergence
18.4E: Noncoding DNA
18.4F: Variations in Size and Number of Genes
18.05: Evidence of Evolution
18.5A: The Fossil Record as Evidence for Evolution
18.5B: Fossil Formation
18.5C: Gaps in the Fossil Record
18.5D: Carbon Dating and Estimating Fossil Age
18.5E: The Fossil Record and the Evolution of the Modern Horse
18.5F: Homologous Structures
18.5G: Convergent Evolution
18.5H: Vestigial Structures
18.5I: Biogeography and the Distribution of Species
19: The Evolution of Populations
19.01: Population Evolution
19.1A: Defining Population Evolution
19.1B: Population Genetics
19.1C: Hardy-Weinberg Principle of Equilibrium
19.02: Population Genetics
19.2A: Genetic Variation
19.2B: Genetic Drift
19.2C: Gene Flow and Mutation
19.2D: Nonrandom Mating and Environmental Variance
19.03: Adaptive Evolution
19.3A: Natural Selection and Adaptive Evolution
19.3B: Stabilizing Directional and Diversifying Selection
19.3C: Frequency-Dependent Selection
19.3D: Sexual Selection
19.3E: No Perfect Organism
20: Phylogenies and the History of Life
20.01: Organizing Life on Earth
20.1A: Phylogenetic Trees
20.1B: Limitations of Phylogenetic Trees
20.1C: The Levels of Classification
20.02: Determining Evolutionary Relationships
20.2A: Distinguishing between Similar Traits
20.2B: Building Phylogenetic Trees
20.03: Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
20.3A: Limitations to the Classic Model of Phylogenetic Trees
20.3B: Horizontal Gene Transfer
20.3C: Endosymbiotic Theory and the Evolution of Eukaryotes
20.3D: Web Network and Ring of Life Models
21: Viruses
21.01: Viral Evolution Morphology and Classification
21.1A: Discovery and Detection of Viruses
21.1B: Evolution of Viruses
21.1C: Viral Morphology
21.1D: Virus Classification
21.02: Virus Infections and Hosts
21.2A: Steps of Virus Infections
21.2B: The Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles of Bacteriophages
21.2C: Animal Viruses
21.2D: Plant Viruses
21.03: Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
21.3A: Vaccines and Immunity
21.3B: Vaccines and Anti-Viral Drugs for Treatment
21.04: Prions and Viroids
21.4.01: 21-4A- Prions and Viroids
22: Prokaryotes- Bacteria and Archaea
22.01: Prokaryotic Diversity
22.1A: Classification of Prokaryotes
22.1B: The Origins of Archaea and Bacteria
22.1C: Extremophiles and Biofilms
22.02: Structure of Prokaryotes
22.2A: Basic Structures of Prokaryotic Cells
22.2B: Prokaryotic Reproduction
22.03: Prokaryotic Metabolism
22.3A: Energy and Nutrient Requirements for Prokaryotes
22.3B: The Role of Prokaryotes in Ecosystems
22.04: Bacterial Diseases in Humans
22.4A: History of Bacterial Diseases
22.4B: Biofilms and Disease
22.4C: Antibiotics- Are We Facing a Crisis
22.4D: Bacterial Foodborne Diseases
22.05: Beneficial Prokaryotes
22.5A: Symbiosis between Bacteria and Eukaryotes
22.5B: Early Biotechnology- Cheese Bread Wine Beer and Yogurt
22.5C: Prokaryotes and Environmental Bioremediation
23: Protists
23.01: Eukaryotic Origins
23.1A: Early Eukaryotes
23.1B: Characteristics of Eukaryotic DNA
23.1C: Endosymbiosis and the Evolution of Eukaryotes
23.1D: The Evolution of Mitochondria
23.1E: The Evolution of Plastids
23.02: Characteristics of Protists
23.2A: Cell Structure Metabolism and Motility
23.2B: Protist Life Cycles and Habitats
23.03: Groups of Protists
23.3A: Excavata
23.3B: Chromalveolata- Alveolates
23.3C: Chromalveolata- Stramenopiles
23.3D: Rhizaria
23.3E: Archaeplastida
23.3F: Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta
23.04: Ecology of Protists
23.4A: Protists as Primary Producers Food Sources and Symbionts
23.4B: Protists as Human Pathogens
23.4C: Protists as Plant Pathogens
24: Fungi
24.01: Characteristics of Fungi
24.1A: Characteristics of Fungi
24.1B: Fungi Cell Structure and Function
24.1C: Fungi Reproduction
24.02: Ecology of Fungi
24.2A: Fungi Habitat Decomposition and Recycling
24.2B: Mutualistic Relationships with Fungi and Fungivores
24.03: Classifications of Fungi
24.3A: Chytridiomycota- The Chytrids
24.3B: Zygomycota - The Conjugated Fungi
24.3C: Ascomycota - The Sac Fungi
24.3D: Basidiomycota- The Club Fungi
24.3E: Deuteromycota - The Imperfect Fungi
24.3F: Glomeromycota
24.04: Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
24.4A: Fungi as Plant Animal and Human Pathogens
24.05: Importance of Fungi in Human Life
24.5A: Importance of Fungi in Human Life
25: Seedless Plants
25.01: Early Plant Life
25.1A: Early Plant Life
25.1B: Evolution of Land Plants
25.1C: Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
25.1D: Sporophytes and Gametophytes in Seedless Plants
25.1E: Structural Adaptations for Land in Seedless Plants
25.1F: The Major Divisions of Land Plants
25.02: Green Algae- Precursors of Land Plants
25.2A: Streptophytes and Reproduction of Green Algae
25.2B: Charales
25.03: Bryophytes
25.3A: Bryophytes
25.3B: Liverworts and Hornworts
25.3C: Mosses
25.04: Seedless Vascular Plants
25.4A: Seedless Vascular Plants
25.4B: Vascular Tissue- Xylem and Phloem
25.4C: The Evolution of Roots in Seedless Plants
25.4D: Ferns and Other Seedless Vascular Plants
25.4E: The Importance of Seedless Vascular Plants
26: Seed Plants
26.01: Evolution of Seed Plants
26.1A: The Evolution of Seed Plants and Adaptations for Land
26.1B: Evolution of Gymnosperms
26.1C: Evolution of Angiosperms
26.02: Gymnosperms
26.2A: Characteristics of Gymnosperms
26.2B: Life Cycle of a Conifer
26.2C: Diversity of Gymnosperms
26.03: Angiosperms
26.3A: Angiosperm Flowers
26.3B: Angsiosperm Fruit
26.3C: The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
26.3D: Diversity of Angiosperms
26.04: The Role of Seed Plants
26.4A: Herbivory and Pollination
26.4B: The Importance of Seed Plants in Human Life
26.4C: Biodiversity of Plants
27: Introduction to Animal Diversity
27.01: Features of the Animal Kingdom
27.1A: Characteristics of the Animal Kingdom
27.1B: Complex Tissue Structure
27.1C: Animal Reproduction and Development
27.02: Features Used to Classify Animals
27.2A: Animal Characterization Based on Body Symmetry
27.2B: Animal Characterization Based on Features of Embryological Development
27.03: Animal Phylogeny
27.3A: Constructing an Animal Phylogenetic Tree
27.3B: Molecular Analyses and Modern Phylogenetic Trees
27.04: The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom
27.4A: Pre-Cambrian Animal Life
27.4B: The Cambrian Explosion of Animal Life
27.4C: Post-Cambrian Evolution and Mass Extinctions
28: Invertebrates
28.01: Phylum Porifera
28.1A: Phylum Porifera
28.1B: Morphology of Sponges
28.1C: Physiological Processes in Sponges
28.02: Phylum Cnidaria
28.2A: Phylum Cnidaria
28.2B: Class Anthozoa
28.2C: Class Scyphozoa
28.2D: Class Cubozoa and Class Hydrozoa
28.03: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
28.3A: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
28.3B: Phylum Platyhelminthes
28.3C: Phylum Rotifera
28.3D: Phylum Nemertea
28.3E: Phylum Mollusca
28.3F: Classification of Phylum Mollusca
28.3G: Phylum Annelida
28.04: Superphylum Ecdysozoa
28.4A: Superphylum Ecdysozoa
28.4B: Phylum Nematoda
28.4C: Phylum Arthropoda
28.4D: Subphyla of Arthropoda
28.05: Superphylum Deuterostomia
28.5A: Phylum Echinodermata
28.5B: Classes of Echinoderms
28.5C: Phylum Chordata
29: Vertebrates
29.01: Chordates
29.1A: Characteristics of Chordata
29.1B: Chordates and the Evolution of Vertebrates
29.1C: The Evolution of Craniata and Vertebrata
29.1D: Characteristics of Vertebrates
29.02: Fishes
29.2A: Agnathans- Jawless Fishes
29.2B: Gnathostomes - Jawed Fishes
29.03: Amphibians
29.3A: Characteristics and Evolution of Amphibians
29.3B: Modern Amphibians
29.3C: Evolution of Amniotes
29.04: Reptiles
29.4A: Characteristics of Amniotes
29.4B: Characteristics of Reptiles
29.4C: Evolution of Reptiles
29.4D: Modern Reptiles
29.05: Birds
29.5A: Characteristics of Birds
29.5B: Evolution of Birds
29.06: Mammals
29.6A: Characteristics of Mammals
29.6B: Evolution of Mammals
29.6C: Living Mammals
29.07: The Evolution of Primates
29.7A: Characteristics and Evolution of Primates
29.7B: Early Human Evolution
29.7C: Early Hominins
29.7D: Genus Homo
30: Plant Form and Physiology
30.01: The Plant Body - Plant Tissues and Organ Systems
30.02: Stems - Functions of Stems
30.03: Stems - Stem Anatomy
30.04: Stems - Primary and Secondary Growth in Stems
30.05: Stems - Stem Modifications
30.06: Roots - Types of Root Systems and Zones of Growth
30.07: Roots - Root Modifications
30.08: Leaves - Leaf Structure and Arrangment
30.09: Leaves - Types of Leaf Forms
30.10: Leaves - Leaf Structure Function and Adaptation
30.11: Plant Development - Meristems
30.12: Plant Development - Genetic Control of Flowers
30.13: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Water and Solute Potential
30.14: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Pressure Gravity and Matric Potential
30.15: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem
30.16: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Transportation of Photosynthates in the Phloem
30.17: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Plant Responses to Light
30.18: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - The Phytochrome System and Red Light Response
30.19: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Blue Light Response
30.20: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Plant Responses to Gravity
30.21: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Auxins Cytokinins and Gibberellins
30.22: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Abscisic Acid Ethylene and Nontraditional Hormones
30.23: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
30.24: Plant Defense Mechanisms - Against Herbivores
30.25: Plant Defense Mechanisms - Against Pathogens
31: Soil and Plant Nutrition
31.01: Nutritional Requirements of Plants
31.1A: Plant Nutrition
31.1B: The Chemical Composition of Plants
31.1C: Essential Nutrients for Plants
31.02: The Soil
31.2A: Soil Composition
31.2B: Soil Formation
31.2C: Physical Properties of Soil
31.03: Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
31.3A: Nitrogen Fixation- Root and Bacteria Interactions
31.3B: Mycorrhizae- The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots
31.3C: Nutrients from Other Sources
32: Plant Reproductive Development and Structure
32.01: Plant Reproductive Development and Structure - Plant Reproductive Development and Structure
32.02: Plant Reproductive Development and Structure - Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
32.03: Plant Reproductive Development and Structure - Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
32.04: Pollination and Fertilization - Introduction
32.05: Pollination and Fertilization - Pollination by Insects
32.06: Pollination and Fertilization - Pollination by Bats Birds Wind and Water
32.07: Pollination and Fertilization - Double Fertilization in Plants
32.08: Pollination and Fertilization - Development of the Seed
32.09: Pollination and Fertilization - Development of Fruit and Fruit Types
32.10: Pollination and Fertilization - Fruit and Seed Dispersal
32.11: Asexual Reproduction - Asexual Reproduction in Plants
32.12: Asexual Reproduction - Natural and Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction in Plants
32.13: Asexual Reproduction - Plant Life Spans
33: The Animal Body- Basic Form and Function
33.01: Animal Form and Function - Characteristics of the Animal Body
33.02: Animal Form and Function - Body Plans
33.03: Animal Form and Function - Limits on Animal Size and Shape
33.04: Animal Form and Function - Limiting Effects of Diffusion on Size and Development
33.05: Animal Form and Function - Animal Bioenergetics
33.06: Animal Form and Function - Animal Body Planes and Cavities
33.07: Animal Primary Tissues - Epithelial Tissues
33.08: Animal Primary Tissues - Loose Fibrous and Cartilage Connective Tissues
33.09: Animal Primary Tissues - Bone Adipose and Blood Connective Tissues
33.10: Animal Primary Tissues - Muscle Tissues and Nervous Tissues
33.11: Homeostasis - Homeostatic Process
33.12: Homeostasis - Control of Homeostasis
33.13: Homeostasis - Thermoregulation
33.14: Homeostasis - Heat Conservation and Dissipation
34: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
34.01: Digestive Systems - Introduction
34.02: Digestive Systems - Herbivores Omnivores and Carnivores
34.03: Digestive Systems - Invertebrate Digestive Systems
34.04: Digestive Systems - Vertebrate Digestive Systems
34.05: Digestive Systems - Digestive System- Mouth and Stomach
34.06: Digestive Systems - Digestive System- Small and Large Intestines
34.07: Nutrition and Energy Production - Food Requirements and Essential Nutrients
34.08: Nutrition and Energy Production - Food Energy and ATP
34.09: Digestive System Processes - Ingestion
34.10: Digestive System Processes - Digestion and Absorption
34.11: Digestive System Processes - Elimination
34.12: Digestive System Regulation - Neural Responses to Food
34.13: Digestive System Regulation - Hormonal Responses to Food
35: The Nervous System
35.01: Neurons and Glial Cells - Introduction
35.02: Neurons and Glial Cells - Neurons
35.03: Neurons and Glial Cells - Glia
35.04: How Neurons Communicate - Nerve Impulse Transmission within a Neuron- Resting Potential
35.05: How Neurons Communicate - Nerve Impulse Transmission within a Neuron- Action Potential
35.06: How Neurons Communicate - Synaptic Transmission
35.07: How Neurons Communicate - Signal Summation
35.08: How Neurons Communicate - Synaptic Plasticity
35.09: The Nervous System
35.10: The Central Nervous System - Cerebral Cortex and Brain Lobes
35.11: The Central Nervous System - Midbrain and Brain Stem
35.12: The Central Nervous System - Spinal Cord
35.13: The Peripheral Nervous System - Autonomic Nervous System
35.14: The Peripheral Nervous System - The Sensory-Somatic Nervous System
35.15: Neurodegenerative Disorders - Introduction
35.16: Nervous System Disorders - Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Autism and ADHD
35.17: Nervous System Disorders - Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Mental Illnesses
35.18: Nervous System Disorders - Other Neurological Disorders
36: Sensory Systems
36.01: Sensory Processes - Reception
36.02: Sensory Processes - Transduction and Perception
36.03: Somatosensation - Somatosensory Receptors
36.04: Somatosensation - Integration of Signals from Mechanoreceptors
36.05: Somatosensation - Thermoreception
36.06: Taste and Smell - Tastes and Odors
36.07: Taste and Smell - Reception and Transduction
36.08: Hearing and Vestibular Sensation - Sound
36.09: Hearing and Vestibular Sensation - Reception of Sound
36.10: Hearing and Vestibular Sensation - The Vestibular System
36.11: Hearing and Vestibular Sensation - Balance and Determining Equilibrium
36.12: Vision - Light
36.13: Vision - Anatomy of the Eye
36.14: Vision - Transduction of Light
36.15: Vision - Visual Processing
37: The Endocrine System
37.01: Types of Hormones - Hormone Functions
37.02: Types of Hormones - Lipid-Derived Amino Acid-Derived and Peptide Hormones
37.03: How Hormones Work - Introduction
37.04: How Hormones Work - Intracellular Hormone Receptors
37.05: How Hormones Work - Plasma Membrane Hormone Receptors
37.06: Regulation of Body Processes - Hormonal Regulation of the Excretory System
37.07: Regulation of Body Processes - Hormonal Regulation of the Reproductive System
37.08: Regulation of Body Processes - Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
37.09: Regulation of Body Processes - Hormonal Control of Blood Calcium Levels
37.10: Regulation of Body Processes - Hormonal Regulation of Growth
37.11: Regulation of Body Processes - Hormonal Regulation of Stress
38: The Musculoskeletal System
38.01: Types of Skeletal Systems - Functions of the Musculoskeletal System
38.02: Types of Skeletal Systems - Types of Skeletal Systems
38.03: Types of Skeletal Systems - Human Axial Skeleton
38.04: Types of Skeletal Systems - Human Appendicular Skeleton
38.05: Bone - Introduction
38.06: Bone - Cell Types in Bones
38.07: Bone - Bone Development
38.08: Bone - Growth of Bone
38.09: Bone - Bone Remodeling and Repair
38.10: Joints and Skeletal Movement - Classification of Joints on the Basis of Structure and Function
38.11: Joints and Skeletal Movement - Movement at Synovial Joints
38.12: Joints and Skeletal Movement - Types of Synovial Joints
38.13: Joints and Skeletal Movement - Bone and Joint Disorders
38.14: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - Structure and Function of the Muscular System
38.15: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - Skeletal Muscle Fibers
38.16: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
38.17: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - ATP and Muscle Contraction
38.18: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - Regulatory Proteins
38.19: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - ExcitationContraction Coupling
38.20: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion - Control of Muscle Tension
39: The Respiratory System
39.01: Systems of Gas Exchange - The Respiratory System and Direct Diffusion
39.02: Systems of Gas Exchange - Skin Gills and Tracheal Systems
39.03: Systems of Gas Exchange - Amphibian and Bird Respiratory Systems
39.04: Systems of Gas Exchange - Mammalian Systems and Protective Mechanisms
39.05: Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces - Gas Pressure and Respiration
39.06: Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces - Basic Principles of Gas Exchange
39.07: Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces - Lung Volumes and Capacities
39.08: Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces - Gas Exchange across the Alveoli
39.09: Breathing - The Mechanics of Human Breathing
39.10: Breathing - Types of Breathing
39.11: Breathing - The Work of Breathing
39.12: Breathing - Dead Space- V Q Mismatch
39.13: Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids - Transport of Oxygen in the Blood
39.14: Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids - Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
40: The Circulatory System
40.01: Overview of the Circulatory System - The Role of the Circulatory System
40.02: Overview of the Circulatory System - Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
40.03: Overview of the Circulatory System - Types of Circulatory Systems in Animals
40.04: Components of the Blood - The Role of Blood in the Body
40.05: Components of the Blood - Red Blood Cells
40.06: Components of the Blood - White Blood Cells
40.07: Components of the Blood - Platelets and Coagulation Factors
40.08: Components of the Blood - Plasma and Serum
40.09: Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels - Structures of the Heart
40.10: Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels - Arteries Veins and Capillaries
40.11: Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels - The Cardiac Cycle
40.12: Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation - Blood Flow Through the Body
40.13: Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation - Blood Pressure
41: Osmotic Regulation and the Excretory System
41.01: Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance - Introduction
41.02: Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance - Transport of Electrolytes across Cell Membranes
41.03: Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance - Concept of Osmolality and Milliequivalent
41.04: Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance - Osmoregulators and Osmoconformers
41.05: Nitrogenous Wastes - Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals- The Urea Cycle
41.06: Nitrogenous Wastes - Nitrogenous Waste in Birds and Reptiles- Uric Acid
41.07: Excretion Systems - Contractile Vacuoles in Microorganisms
41.08: Excretion Systems - Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms
41.09: Excretion Systems - Malpighian Tubules of Insects
41.10: Human Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems - Kidney Structure
41.11: Human Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems - Nephron- The Functional Unit of the Kidney
41.12: Human Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems - Kidney Function and Physiology
41.13: Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions - Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
41.14: Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions - Other Hormonal Controls for Osmoregulation
42: The Immune System
42.01: Innate Immune Response - Innate Immune Response
42.02: Innate Immune Response - Physical and Chemical Barriers
42.03: Innate Immune Response - Pathogen Recognition
42.04: Innate Immune Response - Natural Killer Cells
42.05: Innate Immune Response - The Complement System
42.06: Adaptive Immune Response - Antigen-presenting Cells- B and T cells
42.07: Adaptive Immune Response - Humoral Immune Response
42.08: Adaptive Immune Response - Cell-Mediated Immunity
42.09: Adaptive Immune Response - Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes and Mucosal Surfaces
42.10: Adaptive Immune Response - Immunological Memory
42.11: Adaptive Immune Response - Regulating Immune Tolerance
42.12: Antibodies - Antibody Structure
42.13: Antibodies - Antibody Functions
42.14: Disruptions in the Immune System - Immunodeficiency
42.15: Disruptions in the Immune System - Hypersensitivities
43: Animal Reproduction and Development
43.01: Reproduction Methods
43.1A: Methods of Reproducing
43.1B: Types of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
43.1C: Sex Determination
43.02: Fertilization
43.2A: External and Internal Fertilization
43.2B: The Evolution of Reproduction
43.03: Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
43.3A: Male Reproductive Anatomy
43.3B: Female Reproductive Anatomy
43.3C: Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
43.04: Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
43.4A: Male Hormones
43.4B: Female Hormones
43.05: Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
43.5A: Fertilization
43.5B: Cleavage the Blastula Stage and Gastrulation
43.06: Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
43.6A: Organogenesis
43.6B: Vertebrate Axis Formation
43.07: Human Pregnancy and Birth
43.7A: Human Gestation
43.7B: Labor and Birth
43.7C: Contraception and Birth Control
43.7D: Infertility
44: Ecology and the Biosphere
44.01: The Scope of Ecology
44.1A: Introduction to Ecology
44.1B: Organismal Ecology and Population Ecology
44.1C: Community Ecology and Ecosystem Ecology
44.02: Biogeography
44.2A: Biogeography
44.2B: Energy Sources
44.2C: Temperature and Water
44.2D: Inorganic Nutrients and Other Factors
44.2E: Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth
44.03: Terrestrial Biomes
44.3A: What constitutes a biome
44.3B: Tropical Wet Forest and Savannas
44.3C: Subtropical Deserts and Chaparral
44.3D: Temperate Grasslands
44.3E: Temperate Forests
44.3F: Boreal Forests and Arctic Tundra
44.04: Aquatic Biomes
44.4A: Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes
44.4B: Marine Biomes
44.4C: Estuaries- Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water
44.4D: Freshwater Biomes
44.05: Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
44.5A: Climate and Weather
44.5B: Causes of Global Climate Change
44.5C: Evidence of Global Climate Change
44.5D: Past and Present Effects of Climate Change
45: Population and Community Ecology
45.01: Population Demography
45.1A: Population Demography
45.1B: Population Size and Density
45.1C: Species Distribution
45.1D: The Study of Population Dynamics
45.02: Environmental Limits to Population Growth
45.2A: Exponential Population Growth
45.2B: Logistic Population Growth