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A Notebook for Topics in Thermodynamics of Solutions and Liquid Mixtures

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A Notebook for Topics in Thermodynamics of Solutions and Liquid Mixtures

Over three hundred Topics in Thermodynamics (which can addressed individually) describe the thermodynamic properties of aqueous solutions and aqueous mixtures. The Gibbs energies of these systems are discussed leading through successive differential operations to enthalpies, volumes, heat capacities, compressibilities (isobaric and isentropic) and expansibilities.

Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Textbook MapsChemistry
Author
Michael J Blandamer & Joao Carlos R Reis
Publisher
University of Leicester & Faculdade de Ciencias
Source
LibreTexts
License
CC0 / Public domain
Language
EN
Category
Basic Sciences
Read online Download PDF (open licence)
Contents· 344 sections
  1. 01: Modules
  2. 1.01: Activity
  3. 1.1.01: Acid Dissociation Constants- Weak Acids- Debye-Huckel Limiting Law
  4. 1.1.02: Acquisitive Convention
  5. 1.1.03: Activity- Solutions and Liquid Mixtures
  6. 1.1.04: Activity of Aqueous Solutions
  7. 1.1.05: Activity of Solvents
  8. 1.1.06: Activity of Solvents- Classic Analysis
  9. 1.1.07: Activity of Water - Foods
  10. 1.1.08: Activity of Water - One Solute
  11. 1.1.09: Activity of Water - Two Solutes
  12. 1.1.10: Activity Coefficient- Two Neutral Solutes- Solute Trace Solute i
  13. 1.1.11: Activity Coefficients
  14. 1.1.12: Activity Coefficients- Salt Solutions- Ion-Ion Interactions
  15. 1.1.13: Activity of Water - Salt Solutions
  16. 1.02: Affinity for Spontaneous Chemical Reaction
  17. 1.2.01: Affinity for Spontaneous Chemical Reaction
  18. 1.2.02: Affinity for Spontaneous Reaction- Chemical Potentials
  19. 1.2.03: Affinity for Spontaneous Chemical Reaction- Phase Equilibria
  20. 1.2.04: Affinity for Spontaneous Reaction- General Differential
  21. 1.2.05: Affinity for Spontaneous Reaction- Dependence on Temperature
  22. 1.2.06: Affinity for Spontaneous Reaction - Dependence on Pressure
  23. 1.2.07: Affinity for Spontaneous Reaction - Stability
  24. 1.2.08: Affinity for Spontaneous Chemical Reaction - Law of Mass Action
  25. 1.2.09: Affinity for Spontaneous Chemical Reaction - Isochoric Condition and Controversy
  26. 1.03: Calorimeter
  27. 1.3.01: Calorimeter- Isobaric
  28. 1.3.02: Calorimetry- Isobaric- General Operation
  29. 1.3.03: Calorimetry- Solutions- Isobaric
  30. 1.3.04: Calorimetry- Solutions- Adiabatic
  31. 1.3.05: Calorimetry- Solutions - Heat Flow
  32. 1.3.06: Calorimetry - Titration Microcalorimetry
  33. 1.3.07: Calorimeter- Titration Microcalorimetry- Enzyme-Substrate Interaction
  34. 1.3.08: Calorimetry- Titration Microcalorimetry- Micelle Deaggregation
  35. 1.3.09: Calorimetry- Scanning
  36. 1.3.10: Calorimetry- Solutions- Flow Microcalorimetry
  37. 1.04: Chemical Equilibria
  38. 1.4.01: Chemical Equilibria- Solutions
  39. 1.4.02: Chemical Equilibria- Solutions- Derived Thermodynamic Parameters
  40. 1.4.03: Chemical Equilibria- Solutions- Simple Solutes
  41. 1.4.04: Chemical Equilibria- Solutions- Ion Association
  42. 1.4.05: Chemical Equilibria- Solutions- Sparingly Soluble Salt
  43. 1.4.06: Chemical Equilibria- Cratic and Unitary Quantities
  44. 1.4.07: Chemical Equilibria- Composition- Temperature and Pressure Dependence
  45. 1.4.08: Chemical Equilibrium Constants- Dependence on Temperature at Fixed Pressure
  46. 1.4.09: Chemical Equilibria- Dependence on Pressure at Fixed Temperature
  47. 1.05: Chemical Potentials
  48. 1.5.01: Chemical Potentials Composition and the Gas Constant
  49. 1.5.02: Chemical Potentials- Gases
  50. 1.5.03: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- General Properties
  51. 1.5.04: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Composition
  52. 1.5.05: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Partial Molar Properties
  53. 1.5.06: Chemical Potentials- Liquid Mixtures- Raoult's Law
  54. 1.5.07: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Raoult's Law
  55. 1.5.08: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Osmotic Coefficient
  56. 1.5.09: Chemical Potentials Excess Aqueous Solution
  57. 1.5.10: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Henry's Law
  58. 1.5.11: Chemical Potentials- Solutes
  59. 1.5.12: Chemical Potentials- Solute Molality Scale
  60. 1.5.13: Chemical Potentials- Solutes- Mole Fraction Scale
  61. 1.5.14: Chemical Potentials Solute Concentration Scale
  62. 1.5.15: Chemical Potentials- Solute- Concentration and Molality Scales
  63. 1.5.16: Chemical Potentials- Solute- Molality and Mole Fraction Scales
  64. 1.5.17: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Salts
  65. 1.5.18: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- 1-1 Salts
  66. 1.5.19: Chemical Potentials- Solutions- Salt Hydrates in Aqueous Solution
  67. 1.5.20: Chemical Potentials- Salt Solutions- Ion-Ion Interactions
  68. 1.5.21: Chemical Potentials- Salt Solutions- Debye-Huckel Equation
  69. 1.06: Composition
  70. 1.6.01: Composition- Mole Fraction- Molality- Concentration
  71. 1.6.02: Composition- Scale Conversions- Molality
  72. 1.6.03: Composition- Scale Conversion- Solvent Mixtures
  73. 1.07: Compressions
  74. 1.7.01: Compressions and Expansions- Liquids
  75. 1.7.02: Compressibilities (Isothermal) and Chemical Potentials- Liquids
  76. 1.7.03: Compressions- Isentropic- Solutions- General Comments
  77. 1.7.04: Compressibilities- Isentropic- Related Properties
  78. 1.7.05: Compressions- Isentropic- Solutions- Partial and Apparent Molar
  79. 1.7.06: Compressions- Isentropic- Neutral Solutes
  80. 1.7.07: Compressions- Isentropic- Salt Solutions
  81. 1.7.08: Compresssions- Isentropic- Aqueous Solution
  82. 1.7.09: Compressions- Isentropic and Isothermal- Solutions- Approximate Limiting Estimates
  83. 1.7.10: Compressions- Desnoyers - Philip Equation
  84. 1.7.11: Compression- Isentropic- Apparent Molar Volume
  85. 1.7.12: Compressions- Isentropic- Binary Liquid Mixtures
  86. 1.7.13: Compressions- Isothermal- Equilibrium and Frozen
  87. 1.7.14: Compressions- Ratio- Isentropic and Isothermal
  88. 1.7.15: Compression- Isentropic and Isothermal- Solutions- Limiting Estimates
  89. 1.7.16: Compressions- Isentropic and Isothermal- Apparent Molar Volume
  90. 1.7.17: Compressions- Isothermal- Solutes- Partial Molar Compressions
  91. 1.7.18: Compressions- Isothermal- Apparent Molar Compression
  92. 1.7.19: Compressions- Isothermal- Solutions- Apparent Molar- Determination
  93. 1.7.20: Compressions- Isothermal- Salt Solutions
  94. 1.7.21: Compressions- Isothermal- Binary Aqueous Mixtures
  95. 1.7.22: Compressions- Isothermal- Liquid Mixtures Binary- Compressibilities
  96. 1.08: Enthalpy
  97. 1.8.01: Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies
  98. 1.8.02: Enthalpy
  99. 1.8.03: Enthalpy- Thermodynamic Potential
  100. 1.8.04: Enthalpy- Solutions- Partial Molar Enthalpies
  101. 1.8.05: Enthalpies- Solutions- Equilibrium and Frozen Partial Molar Enthalpies
  102. 1.8.06: Enthalpies- Neural Solutes
  103. 1.8.07: Enthalpies- Solutions- Dilution- Simple Solutes
  104. 1.8.08: Enthalpies- Solutions- Simple Solutes- Interaction Parameters
  105. 1.8.09: Enthalpies- Salt Solutions- Apparent Molar- Partial Molar and Relative Enthalpies
  106. 1.8.10: Enthalpy of Solutions- Salts
  107. 1.8.11: Enthalpies- Salt Solutions- Dilution
  108. 1.8.12: Enthalpies- Born-Bjerrum Equation- Salt Solutions
  109. 1.8.13: Enthalpies- Liquid Mixtures
  110. 1.09: Entropy
  111. 1.9.01: Entropy - Second Law of Thermodynamics
  112. 1.9.02: Entropy- Dependence on Temperature and Pressure
  113. 1.9.03: Entropy and Spontaneous Reaction
  114. 1.9.04: Entropy- Dependence on Temperature
  115. 1.9.05: Entropies- Solutions- Limiting Partial Molar Entropies
  116. 1.9.06: Entropies- Liquid Mixtures
  117. 1.10: Gibbs Energies
  118. 1.10.01: Gibbs Energy
  119. 1.10.02: Gibbs Energy- Thermodynamic Potential
  120. 1.10.03: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Solvent and Solute
  121. 1.10.04: Gibbs Energies- Equilibrium and Spontaneous Change
  122. 1.10.05: Gibbs Energies- Raoult's Law
  123. 1.10.06: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Pairwise Solute Interaction Parameters
  124. 1.10.07: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Parameters Phi and ln(gamma)
  125. 1.10.08: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Solute-Solute Interactions
  126. 1.10.09: Gibbs Energies- Solutes- Cospheres
  127. 1.10.10: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Cosphere-Cosphere Interactions
  128. 1.10.11: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Solute-Solute Interactions- Pairwise
  129. 1.10.12: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Two Neutral Solutes
  130. 1.10.13: Gibbs Energies- Solutions- Hydrates in Aqueous Solution
  131. 1.10.14: Gibbs Energies- Salt Hydrates
  132. 1.10.15: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Electric Neutrality
  133. 1.10.16: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Born Equation
  134. 1.10.17: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Lattice Models
  135. 1.10.18: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Debye-Huckel Equation
  136. 1.10.19: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Debye-Huckel Limiting Law
  137. 1.10.20: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- DHLL- Derived Parameters
  138. 1.10.21: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- DHLL- Empirical Modifications
  139. 1.10.22: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Solvent
  140. 1.10.23: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Excess Gibbs Energies
  141. 1.10.24: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Pitzer's Equations
  142. 1.10.25: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Cosphere - Cosphere Interactions
  143. 1.10.26: Gibbs Energies- Binary Liquid Mixtures
  144. 1.10.27: Gibbs Energies- Binary Liquid Mixtures- General Properties
  145. 1.10.28: Gibbs Energies- Liquid Mixtures- Thermodynamic Patterns
  146. 1.10.29: Gibbs Energies- Binary Liquid Mixtures- Excess Thermodynamic Variables
  147. 1.10.30: Gibbs Energies- General Equations
  148. 1.10.31: Gibbs Energies- Liquid Mixtures- Ideal
  149. 1.10.32: Gibbs Energies- Liquid Mixtures- Typically Aqueous (TA)
  150. 1.10.33: Gibbs Energies- Liquid Mixtures- Typically Non-Aqueous Positive TNAP
  151. 1.10.34: Gibbs Energies- Liquid Mixtures- Typically Non-Aqueous Negative TNAN
  152. 1.10.35: Gibbs Energies- Liquid Mixtures- Immiscibility
  153. 1.10.36: Gibbs Energies- Salt Solutions- Aqueous Mixtures
  154. 1.11: Gibbs-Duhem Equation
  155. 1.11.01: Gibbs-Duhem Equation
  156. 1.11.02: Gibbs-Duhem Equation- Salt Solutions- Osmotic and Activity Coefficients
  157. 1.11.03: Gibbs-Duhem Equation- Solvent and Solutes- Aqueous Solutions
  158. 1.11.04: Gibbs-Duhem Equation- Aqueous Salt Solutions- Salt and Solvent- Debye-Huckel Limiting Law
  159. 1.12: Expansions
  160. 1.12.01: Heat Capacities- Isobaric- Solutions
  161. 1.12.02: Heat Capacity- Isobaric- Partial Molar- Solution
  162. 1.12.03: Heat Capacities- Isobaric and Isochoric
  163. 1.12.04: Heat Capacities- Isobaric- Equilibrium and Frozen
  164. 1.12.05: Heat Capacity- Isobaric- Solutions- Excess
  165. 1.12.06: Heat Capacities- Isobaric- Dependence on Temperature
  166. 1.12.07: Expansions- Isobaric and Isentropic
  167. 1.12.08: Expansions- Solutions- Isobaric- Partial and Apparent Molar
  168. 1.12.09: Expansions- Apparent Molar Isobaric- Composition Dependence
  169. 1.12.10: Expansions- Solutions Apparent Molar Isobaric Expansions- Determination
  170. 1.12.11: Expansions- Isobaric- Apparent Molar- Neutral Solutes
  171. 1.12.12: Expansions- Isobaric- Salt Solutions- Apparent Molar
  172. 1.12.13: Expansions- Isobaric- Binary Liquid Mixtures
  173. 1.12.14: Expansibilities- Isobaric- Binary Liquid Mixtures
  174. 1.12.15: Expansions- Isentropic- Solutions
  175. 1.12.16: Expansions- Solutions- Apparent Molar Isentropic and Isobaric
  176. 1.12.17: Expansions- Isentropic- Solutions- Apparent and Partial Molar
  177. 1.12.18: Expansions- Solutions- Isentropic Dependence of Apparent Molar Volume of Solute on Temperature and Pressure
  178. 1.12.19: Expansions- Solutions- Isentropic Dependence of Partial Molar Volume on Temperature
  179. 1.12.20: Expansions- Isentropic- Liquid Mixtures
  180. 1.12.21: Expansions- Solutions- Partial Molar Isobaric and Isentropic
  181. 1.12.22: Expansions and Compressions- Solutions- Isentropic Dependence of Volume on Temperature and Pressure
  182. 1.12.23: Expansions- The Difference
  183. 1.12.24: Expansions- Equations
  184. 1.13: Equilibrium
  185. 1.13.01: Equilibrium and Frozen Properties
  186. 1.13.02: Equilibrium- Isochoric and Isobaric Paramenters
  187. 1.13.03: Equilibirium- Solid-Liquid
  188. 1.13.04: Equilibrium- Liquid-Solid- Schroeder - van Laar Equation
  189. 1.13.05: Equilibrium- Eutectics
  190. 1.13.06: Equilibrium- Depression of Freezing Point of a Solvent by a Solute
  191. 1.13.07: Equilibrium- Liquid-Solids- Hildebrand Rules
  192. 1.14: Excess and Extra Thermodynamics
  193. 1.14.1: "Excess" Thermodynamic Properties
  194. 1.14.2: Excess Thermodynamic Properties - Liquid Mixtures
  195. 1.14.3: Excess Thermodynamic Properties- Aqueous Solutions
  196. 1.14.4: Extensive and Intensive Variables
  197. 1.14.5: Extent of Reaction
  198. 1.14.6: Extent of Reaction - General
  199. 1.14.7: Extrathermodynamics - Background
  200. 1.14.8: Extrathermodynamics - Equilbrium - Acid Strength
  201. 1.14.9: Extrathermodynamics - Solvent Polarity
  202. 1.14.10: Extrathermodynamics - Solvent Effects in Chemical Kinetics
  203. 1.15: Heat Capacities
  204. 1.15.1: Heat Capacities: Isobaric: Neutral Solutes
  205. 1.15.2: Heat Capacities: Solutions: Solutes: Interaction Parameters
  206. 1.15.3: Heat Capacities: Isobaric: Solutions: Unit Volume
  207. 1.15.4: Heat Capacities: Isobaric: Salt Solutions
  208. 1.15.5: Heat Capacities: Isochoric: Liquid Mixtures: Ideal
  209. 1.16: Ion Interactions
  210. 1.16.1: Ion Association
  211. 1.16.2: Ionic Mobilities: Aqueous Solutions
  212. 1.16.3: Ionic Strength: Ional Concentration
  213. 1.16.4: Ion-Water Interactions
  214. 1.17: Isentropic and Iso-Variables
  215. 1.17.1: Isentropic
  216. 1.17.2: Isentropic Thermal Pressure Coefficient
  217. 1.17.3: Iso-Variables
  218. 1.17.4: Isochoric Properties
  219. 1.17.5: Isochoric Thermal Pressure Coefficient
  220. 1.17.6: Isotonic Method; Isopiestic Method
  221. 1.17.7: Isopiestic: Aqueous Salt Solutions
  222. 1.18: Liquid Mixtures
  223. 1.18.1: Liquid Mixtures: Regular Mixtures
  224. 1.18.2: Liquid Mixtures: General Equations
  225. 1.18.3: Liquid Mixtures: Series Functions for Activity Coefficients
  226. 1.18.4: Liquid Mixtures: Binary: Less Common Properties
  227. 1.18.5: Liquid Mixtures: Binary: Pseudo-Excess Properties
  228. 1.19: Perfect and Real Gases
  229. 1.19.1: Perfect and Real Gases
  230. 1.19.2: Perfect Gas: The Gas Constant
  231. 1.19.3: Real Gases: Liquefaction of Gases
  232. 1.20: Surfactants
  233. 1.20.1: Surface Phase: Gibbs Adsorption Isotherm
  234. 1.20.2: Surfactants and Micelles
  235. 1.20.3: Surfactants and Micelles: Non-Ionics
  236. 1.20.4: Surfactants and Miceles: Ionics
  237. 1.20.5: Surfactants and Micelles: Mixed
  238. 1.21: Thermodynamics
  239. 1.21.1: Thermodynamics and Mathematics
  240. 1.21.2: Thermodynamic Energy
  241. 1.21.3: Thermodynamic Energy: Potential Function
  242. 1.21.4: Thermodynamic Potentials
  243. 1.21.5: Thermodynamic Stability: Chemical Equilibria
  244. 1.21.6: Thermodynamic Stability: Thermal Diffusional and Hydrostatic
  245. 1.21.7: Thermodynamics and Kinetics
  246. 1.21.8: Third Law of Thermodynamics
  247. 1.22: Volume
  248. 1.22.1: Volume: Partial Molar: General Analysis
  249. 1.22.2: Volume: Components
  250. 1.22.3: Volume: Partial and Apparent Molar
  251. 1.22.4: Volume: Partial Molar: Frozen and Equilibrium
  252. 1.22.5: Volumes: Solutions: Apparent and Partial Molar Volumes: Determination
  253. 1.22.6: Volumes: Apparent Molar and Excess Volumes
  254. 1.22.7: Volumes: Neutral Solutes: Limiting Partial Molar Volumes
  255. 1.22.8: Volume: Salt Solutions: Born-Drude-Nernst Equation
  256. 1.22.9: Volume: Liquid Mixtures
  257. 1.22.10: Volume: Aqueous Binary Liquid Mixtures
  258. 1.22.11: Volumes: Liquid Mixtures: Binary: Method of Tangents
  259. 1.22.12: Volume of Reaction: Dependence on Pressure
  260. 1.23: Water
  261. 1.23.1: Water
  262. 1.23.2: Water: Molar Volume
  263. 1.23.3: Water: Hydrogen Ions
  264. 1.23.4: Water: Relative Permittivity
  265. 1.23.5: Water: Self-Dissociation
  266. 1.23.6: Water: (Shear) Viscosity
  267. 1.24: Misc
  268. 1.14.01: Adiabatic
  269. 1.14.02: Adsorption- Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm- One Adsorbate
  270. 1.14.03: Absorption Isotherms - Two Absorbates
  271. 1.14.04: Apparent Molar Properties- Solutions- Background
  272. 1.14.05: Apparent Molar Properties- Solutions- General
  273. 1.14.06: Axioms
  274. 1.14.07: Boundary
  275. 1.14.08: Calculus
  276. 1.14.09: Clausius - Clapeyron Equation
  277. 1.14.10: Gibbs - Helmholtz Equation
  278. Redlich-Kister Equation
  279. 1.14.12: Legendre Transformations
  280. 1.14.13: Closed System
  281. 1.14.14: Cohesive Energy Density
  282. 1.14.15: Degree of Dissociation
  283. 1.14.16: Energy and First Law of Thermodynamics
  284. 1.14.17: Energy and Entropy
  285. 1.14.18: Electrochemical Units
  286. 1.14.19: Electrical Units
  287. 1.14.20: Electric Conductivities of Salt Solutions- Dependence on Composition
  288. 1.14.21: Donnan Membrane Equilibria
  289. 1.14.22: Descriptions of Systems
  290. 1.14.23: Enzyme-Substrate Interaction
  291. 1.14.24: Equation of State- General Thermodynamics
  292. 1.14.25: Equation of State- Perfect Gas
  293. 1.14.26: Equation of State - Real Gases, van der Waals, and Other Equations
  294. 1.14.27: Euler's Theorem
  295. 1.14.28: First Law of Thermodynamics
  296. 1.14.29: Functions of State
  297. 1.14.30: Heat, Work, and Energy
  298. 1.14.31: Helmholtz Energy
  299. 1.14.32: Hildebrand Solubility Parameter
  300. 1.14.33: Infinite Dilution
  301. 1.14.34: Extent of Reaction- Chemical Equilibrium- Dependence on Temperature and Pressure- Laws of Moderation
  302. 1.14.34: Internal Pressure
  303. 1.14.35: Internal Pressure: Liquid Mixtures: Excess Property
  304. 1.14.36: Irreversible Thermodynamics
  305. 1.14.37: Irreversible Thermodynamics: Onsager Phenomenological Equations
  306. 1.14.38: Joule-Thomson Coefficient
  307. 1.14.39: Kinetic Salt Effects
  308. 1.14.40: Laws of Thermodynamics
  309. 1.14.41: Lewisian Variables
  310. 1.14.42: L'Hospital's Rule
  311. 1.14.43: Master Equation
  312. 1.14.44: Maxwell Equations
  313. 1.14.45: Moderation
  314. 1.14.46: Molality and Mole Fraction
  315. 1.14.47: Newton-Laplace Equation
  316. 1.14.48: Open System
  317. 1.14.49: Osmotic Coefficient
  318. 1.14.50: Osmotic Pressure
  319. 1.14.51: Partial Molar Properties: General
  320. 1.14.52: Partial Molar Properties: Definitions
  321. 1.14.53: Phase Rule
  322. 1.14.54: Poynting Relation
  323. 1.14.55: Process
  324. 1.14.56: Properties: Equilibrium and Frozen
  325. 1.14.57: Reversible Change
  326. 1.14.58: Reversible Chemical Reactions
  327. 1.14.59: Salting-In and Salting-Out
  328. 1.14.60: Second Law of Thermodynamics
  329. 1.14.61: Solubility Products
  330. 1.14.62: Solubilities of Gases in Liquids
  331. 1.14.63: Solubilities of Solids in Liquids
  332. 1.14.64: Solutions: Solute and Solvent
  333. 1.14.65: Spontaneous Change: Isothermal and Isobaric
  334. 1.14.66: Spontaneous Chemical Reaction
  335. 1.14.67: Standard States: Reference States: Processes
  336. 1.14.68: Surroundings and System
  337. 1.14.69: Temperature of Maximum Density: Aqueous Solutions
  338. 1.14.70: Solutions: Neutral Solutes: Inter-Solute Distances
  339. 1.14.71: Time and Thermodynamics (Timenote)
  340. 1.14.72: Variables: Independent and Dependent
  341. 1.14.73: Variables: Gibbsian and Non-Gibbsian
  342. 1.14.74: Vaporization
  343. 1.14.75: Viscosities: Salt Solutions
  344. 1.14.76: Work