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Anatomy and Physiology

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Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Physiology is the scientific study of the normal function in living systems with a focus on how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions in a living system. Anatomy and physiology make a natural pair of related disciplines that are often studied together.

Medicine
Author
OpenStax
Publisher
Roosevelt University
Source
LibreTexts
License
CC BY
Language
EN
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Contents· 454 sections
  1. 01: Levels of Organization
  2. 1.01: An Introduction to the Human Body
  3. 1.1.01: Introduction
  4. 1.1.02: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
  5. 1.1.1: Student Notebook Assignment
  6. 1.1.03: Structural Organization of the Human Body
  7. 1.1.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  8. 1.1.04: Functions of Human Life
  9. 1.1.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  10. 1.1.05: Requirements for Human Life
  11. 1.1.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  12. 1.1.06: Homeostasis
  13. 1.1.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  14. 1.1.07: Anatomical Terminology
  15. 1.1.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  16. 1.1.08: Medical Imaging
  17. 1.1.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  18. 1.1.09: Key Terms
  19. 1.9: Interactive Link Questions
  20. 1.02: The Chemical Level of Organization
  21. 1.2.01: Introduction
  22. 1.2.02: Elements and Atoms - The Building Blocks of Matter
  23. 1.2.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  24. 1.2.03: Chemical Bonds
  25. 1.2.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  26. 1.2.04: Chemical Reactions
  27. 1.2.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  28. 1.2.05: Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
  29. 1.2.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  30. 1.2.06: Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning
  31. 1.2.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  32. 1.2.07: Key Terms
  33. 1.2.08: Interactive Link Questions
  34. 1.03: The Cellular Level of Organization
  35. 1.3.01: Introduction
  36. 1.3.1.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  37. 1.3.02: The Cell Membrane
  38. 1.3.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  39. 1.3.03: The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
  40. 1.3.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  41. 1.3.04: The Nucleus and DNA Replication
  42. 1.3.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  43. 1.3.05: Protein Synthesis
  44. 3.4.1: Student Notebook Assignment
  45. 1.3.06: Cell Growth and Division
  46. 1.3.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  47. 1.3.07: Cellular Differentiation
  48. 1.3.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  49. 1.3.08: Key Terms
  50. 1.3.09: Interactive Link Questions
  51. 1.04: The Tissue Level of Organization
  52. 1.4.01: Introduction
  53. 1.4.02: Types of Tissues
  54. 1.4.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  55. 1.4.03: Epithelial Tissue
  56. 1.4.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  57. 1.4.04: Connective Tissue Supports and Protects
  58. 1.4.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  59. 1.4.05: Muscle Tissue and Motion
  60. 1.4.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  61. 1.4.06: Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response
  62. 1.4.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  63. 1.4.07: Tissue Injury and Aging
  64. 1.4.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  65. 1.4.08: Key Terms
  66. 1.4.09: Interactive Link Questions
  67. 02: Support and Movement
  68. 2.01: The Integumentary System
  69. 2.1.01: Introduction
  70. 2.1.02: Layers of the Skin
  71. 2.1.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  72. 2.1.03: Accessory Structures of the Skin
  73. 2.1.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  74. 2.1.04: Functions of the Integumentary System
  75. 2.1.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  76. 2.1.05: Diseases Disorders and Injuries of the Integumentary System
  77. 2.1.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  78. 2.1.06: Key Terms
  79. 2.1.07: Interactive Link Questions
  80. 2.1.08: Critical Thinking Questions
  81. 2.02: Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System
  82. 2.2.01: Introduction
  83. 2.2.02: The Functions of the Skeletal System
  84. 2.2.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  85. 2.2.03: Bone Classification
  86. 2.2.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  87. 2.2.04: Bone Structure
  88. 2.2.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  89. 2.2.05: Bone Formation and Development
  90. 2.2.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  91. 2.2.06: Fractures - Bone Repair
  92. 2.2.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  93. 2.2.07: Exercise Nutrition Hormones and Bone Tissue
  94. 2.2.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  95. 2.2.08: Calcium Homeostasis - Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems
  96. 2.2.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  97. 2.2.09: Key Terms
  98. 2.03: Axial Skeleton
  99. 2.3.01: Introduction
  100. 2.3.02: Divisions of the Skeletal System
  101. 2.3.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  102. 2.3.03: The Skull
  103. 2.3.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  104. 2.3.04: The Vertebral Column
  105. 2.3.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  106. 2.3.05: The Thoracic Cage
  107. 2.3.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  108. 2.3.06: Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton
  109. 2.3.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  110. 2.3.07: Key Terms
  111. 2.3.08: Interactive Link Questions
  112. 2.04: The Appendicular Skeleton
  113. 2.4.01: Introduction
  114. 2.4.02: The Pectoral Girdle
  115. 2.4.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  116. 2.4.03: Bones of the Upper Limb
  117. 2.4.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  118. 2.4.04: The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
  119. 2.4.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  120. 2.4.05: Bones of the Lower Limb
  121. 2.4.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  122. 2.4.06: Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
  123. 2.4.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  124. 2.4.07: Key Terms
  125. 2.4.08: Interactive Link Questions
  126. 2.05: Joints
  127. 2.5.01: Introduction
  128. 2.5.02: Classification of Joints
  129. 2.5.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  130. 2.5.03: Fibrous Joints
  131. 2.5.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  132. 2.5.04: Cartilaginous Joints
  133. 2.5.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  134. 2.5.05: Synovial Joints
  135. 2.5.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  136. 2.5.06: Types of Body Movements
  137. 2.5.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  138. 2.5.07: Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints
  139. 2.5.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  140. 2.5.08: Development of Joints
  141. 2.5.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  142. 2.5.09: Key Terms
  143. 2.5.10: Interactive Link Questions
  144. 2.06: Muscle Tissue
  145. 2.6.01: Introduction
  146. 2.6.02: Overview of Muscle Tissues
  147. 2.6.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  148. 2.6.03: Skeletal Muscle
  149. 2.6.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  150. 2.6.04: Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation
  151. 2.6.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  152. 2.6.05: Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension
  153. 2.6.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  154. 2.6.06: Types of Muscle Fibers
  155. 2.6.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  156. 2.6.07: Exercise and Muscle Performance
  157. 2.6.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  158. 2.6.08: Cardiac Muscle Tissue
  159. 2.6.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  160. 2.6.09: Smooth Muscle
  161. 2.6.9.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  162. 2.6.10: Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue
  163. 2.6.10.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  164. 2.6.11: Key Terms
  165. 2.6.12: Interactive Link Questions
  166. 2.07: The Muscular System
  167. 2.7.01: Introduction
  168. 2.7.02: Interactions of Skeletal Muscles Their Fascicle Arrangement and Their Lever Systems
  169. 2.7.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  170. 2.7.03: Naming Skeletal Muscle
  171. 2.7.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  172. 2.7.04: Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back
  173. 2.7.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  174. 2.7.05: Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax
  175. 2.7.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  176. 2.7.06: Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs
  177. 2.7.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  178. 2.7.07: Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs
  179. 2.7.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  180. 2.7.08: Key Terms
  181. 03: Regulation Integration and Control
  182. 3.01: The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
  183. 3.1.01: Introduction
  184. 3.1.02: Basic Structures and Function of the Nervous System
  185. 3.1.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  186. 3.1.03: Nervous Tissue
  187. 3.1.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  188. 3.1.04: The Function of Nervous Tissue
  189. 3.1.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  190. 3.1.05: The Action Potential
  191. 3.1.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  192. 3.1.06: Communication Between Neurons
  193. 3.1.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  194. 3.1.07: Key Terms
  195. 3.1.08: Interactive Link Questions
  196. 3.02: Anatomy of the Nervous Tissue
  197. 3.2.01: Introduction
  198. 3.2.02: The Embryologic Perspective
  199. 3.2.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  200. 3.2.03: The Central Nervous System
  201. 3.2.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  202. 3.2.04: Circulation and the Central Nervous System
  203. 3.2.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  204. 3.2.05: The Peripheral Nervous System
  205. 3.2.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  206. 3.2.06: Key Terms
  207. 3.2.07: Interactive Link Questions
  208. 3.03: The Somatic Nervous System
  209. 3.3.01: Introduction
  210. 3.3.02: Sensory Perception
  211. 3.3.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  212. 3.3.03: Central Processing
  213. 3.3.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  214. 3.3.04: Motor Processing
  215. 3.3.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  216. 3.3.05: Key Terms
  217. 3.3.06: Interactive Link Questions
  218. 3.04: The Autonomic Nervous System
  219. 3.4.01: Introduction
  220. 3.4.02: Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
  221. 3.4.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  222. 3.4.03: Autonomic Reflexes and Homeostasis
  223. 3.4.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  224. 3.4.04: Central Control
  225. 3.4.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  226. 3.4.05: Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System
  227. 3.4.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  228. 3.4.06: Key Terms
  229. 3.4.07: Interactive Link Questions
  230. 3.05: The Neurological Exam
  231. 3.5.01: Introduction
  232. 3.5.02: Overview of the Neurological Exam
  233. 3.5.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  234. 3.5.03: The Mental Status Exam
  235. 3.5.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  236. 3.5.04: The Cranial Nerve Exam
  237. 3.5.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  238. 3.5.05: The Sensory and Motor Exams
  239. 3.5.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  240. 3.5.06: The Coordination and Gait Exams
  241. 3.5.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  242. 3.5.07: Key Terms
  243. 3.5.08: Interactive Link Questions
  244. 3.06: The Endocrine System
  245. 3.6.01: Introduction
  246. 3.6.02: An Overview of the Endocrine System
  247. 3.6.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  248. 3.6.03: Hormones
  249. 3.6.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  250. 3.6.04: The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
  251. 3.6.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  252. 3.6.05: The Thyroid Gland
  253. 3.6.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  254. 3.6.06: The Parathyroid Glands
  255. 3.6.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  256. 3.6.07: The Adrenal Glands
  257. 3.6.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  258. 3.6.08: The Pineal Gland
  259. 3.6.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  260. 3.6.09: Gonadal and Placental Hormones
  261. 3.6.9.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  262. 3.6.10: The Endocrine Pancreas
  263. 3.6.10.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  264. 3.6.11: Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
  265. 3.6.11.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  266. 3.6.12: Development and Aging of the Endocrine System
  267. 3.6.12.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  268. 3.6.13: Key Terms
  269. 3.6.14: Interactive Link Questions
  270. 04: Fluids and Transport
  271. 4.01: The Cardiovascular System - Blood
  272. 4.1.01: Introduction
  273. 4.1.02: An Overview of Blood
  274. 4.1.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  275. 4.1.03: Production of the Formed Elements
  276. 4.1.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  277. 4.1.04: Erythrocytes
  278. 4.1.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  279. 4.1.05: Leukocytes and Platelets
  280. 4.1.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  281. 4.1.06: Hemostasis
  282. 4.1.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  283. 4.1.07: Blood Typing
  284. 4.1.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  285. 4.1.08: Key Terms
  286. 4.1.09: Interactive Link Questions
  287. 4.02: The Cardiovascular System - The Heart
  288. 4.2.01: Introduction
  289. 4.2.02: Heart Anatomy
  290. 4.2.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  291. 4.2.03: Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
  292. 4.2.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  293. 4.2.04: Cardiac Cycle
  294. 4.2.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  295. 4.2.05: Cardiac Physiology
  296. 4.2.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  297. 4.2.06: Development of the Heart
  298. 4.2.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  299. 4.2.07: Key Terms
  300. 4.2.08: Interactive Link Questions
  301. 4.03: The Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Circulation
  302. 4.3.01: Introduction
  303. 4.3.02: Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
  304. 4.3.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  305. 4.3.03: Blood Flow Blood Pressure and Resistance
  306. 4.3.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  307. 4.3.04: Capillary Exchange
  308. 4.3.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  309. 4.3.05: Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System
  310. 4.3.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  311. 4.3.06: Circulatory Pathways
  312. 4.3.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  313. 4.3.07: Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation
  314. 4.3.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  315. 4.3.08: Key Terms
  316. 4.3.09: Interactive Link Questions
  317. 4.04: The Lymphatic and Immune System
  318. 4.4.01: Introduction
  319. 4.4.02: Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
  320. 4.4.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  321. 4.4.03: Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response
  322. 4.4.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  323. 4.4.04: The Adaptive Immune Response - T Lymphocytes and Their Functional Types
  324. 4.4.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  325. 4.4.05: The Adaptive Immune Response - B Lymphocytes and Antibodies
  326. 4.4.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  327. 4.4.06: The Immune Response Against Pathogens
  328. 4.4.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  329. 4.4.07: Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses
  330. 4.4.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  331. 4.4.08: Transplantation and Cancer Immunology
  332. 4.4.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  333. 4.4.09: Key Terms
  334. 4.4.10: Interactive Link Questions
  335. 05: Energy Maintenance and Environmental Exchange
  336. 5.01: The Respiratory System
  337. 5.1.01: Introduction
  338. 5.1.02: Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
  339. 5.1.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  340. 5.1.03: The Lungs
  341. 5.1.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  342. 5.1.04: The Process of Breathing
  343. 5.1.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  344. 5.1.05: Gas Exchange
  345. 5.1.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  346. 5.1.06: Transport of Gases
  347. 5.1.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  348. 5.1.07: Modifications in Respiratory Functions
  349. 5.1.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  350. 5.1.08: Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
  351. 5.1.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  352. 5.1.09: Key Terms
  353. 5.1.10: Interactive Link Questions
  354. 5.02: The Digestive System
  355. 5.2.01: Introduction
  356. 5.2.02: Overview of the Digestive System
  357. 5.2.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  358. 5.2.03: Digestive System Processes and Regulation
  359. 5.2.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  360. 5.2.04: The Mouth Pharynx and Esophagus
  361. 5.2.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  362. 5.2.05: The Stomach
  363. 5.2.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  364. 5.2.06: The Small and Large Intestines
  365. 5.2.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  366. 5.2.07: Accessory Organs in Digestion- The Liver Pancreas and Gallbladder
  367. 5.2.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  368. 5.2.08: Chemical Digestion and Absorption - A Closer Look
  369. 5.2.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  370. 5.2.09: Key Terms
  371. 5.2.10: Interactive Link Questions
  372. 5.03: Metabolism and Nutrition
  373. 5.3.01: Introduction
  374. 5.3.02: Overview of Metabolic Reactions
  375. 5.3.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  376. 5.3.03: Carbohydrate Metabolism
  377. 5.3.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  378. 5.3.04: Lipid Metabolism
  379. 5.3.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  380. 5.3.05: Protein Metabolism
  381. 5.3.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  382. 5.3.06: Metabolic States of the Body
  383. 5.3.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  384. 5.3.07: Energy and Heat Balance
  385. 5.3.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  386. 5.3.08: Nutrition and Diet
  387. 5.3.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  388. 5.3.09: Key Terms
  389. 5.04: The Urinary System
  390. 5.4.01: Introduction
  391. 5.4.02: Physical Characteristics of Urine
  392. 5.4.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  393. 5.4.03: Gross Anatomy of Urine Transport
  394. 5.4.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  395. 5.4.04: Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
  396. 5.4.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  397. 5.4.05: Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
  398. 5.4.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  399. 5.4.06: Physiology of Urine Formation
  400. 5.4.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  401. 5.4.07: Tubular Reabsorption
  402. 5.4.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  403. 5.4.08: Regulation of Renal Blood Flow
  404. 5.4.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  405. 5.4.09: Endocrine Regulation of Kidney Function
  406. 5.4.9.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  407. 5.4.10: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition
  408. 5.4.10.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  409. 5.4.11: The Urinary System and Homeostasis
  410. 5.4.11.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  411. 5.4.12: Key Terms
  412. 5.05: Fluid Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
  413. 5.5.01: Introduction
  414. 5.5.02: Body Fluids and Fluid Compartment
  415. 5.5.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  416. 5.5.03: Water Balance
  417. 5.5.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  418. 5.5.04: Electrolyte Balance
  419. 5.5.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  420. 5.5.05: Acid-Base Balance
  421. 5.5.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  422. 5.5.06: Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
  423. 5.5.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  424. 5.5.07: Key Terms
  425. 5.5.08: Interactive Link Questions
  426. 06: Human Development and the Continuity of Life
  427. 6.01: The Reproductive System
  428. 6.1.01: Introduction
  429. 6.1.02: Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
  430. 6.1.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  431. 6.1.03: Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
  432. 6.1.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  433. 6.1.04: Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems
  434. 6.1.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  435. 6.1.05: Key Terms
  436. 6.1.06: Interactive Link Questions
  437. 6.02: Development and Inheritance
  438. 6.2.01: Introduction
  439. 6.2.02: Fertilization
  440. 6.2.2.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  441. 6.2.03: Embryonic Development
  442. 6.2.3.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  443. 6.2.04: Fetal Development
  444. 6.2.4.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  445. 6.2.05: Changes During Pregnancy Labor and Birth
  446. 6.2.5.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  447. 6.2.06: Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages
  448. 6.2.6.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  449. 6.2.07: Lactation
  450. 6.2.7.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  451. 6.2.08: Patterns of Inheritance
  452. 6.2.8.01: Student Notebook Assignment
  453. 6.2.09: Key Terms
  454. 6.2.10: Interactive Link Questions