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ChemPRIME (Chemical Principles through Integrated Multiple Exemplars) is designed so that chemistry concepts can be presented in an order that reflects the conceptual structure of the discipline and students are able to learn chemistry within a broad range of contexts that relate chemistry to other disciplines and everyday life. ChemPRIME is a collaborative project in which concepts and contexts can be contributed by anyone and used free of charge by anyone for non-commercial purposes.

General Chemistry Chemistry

Author: John Moore et al.
Publisher: University of Wisconsin-Madison
Source: LibreTexts
License: CC BY-NC-SA
Language: EN
Category: Basic Sciences

Read online Download PDF (open licence)

Contents· 487 sections

01: Introduction - The Ambit of Chemistry
1.01: Prelude to Chemistry
1.02: What Chemists Do
1.03: Handling Large and Small Numbers
1.04: The International System of Units (SI)
1.05: SI Prefixes
1.06: Measurements Quantities and Unity Factors
1.6.01: Measurements Quantities and Unity Factors Lecture Demonstrations
1.07: Errors in Measurement
1.7.01: Errors in Measurement Lecture Demonstrations
1.08: Volume
1.09: Density
1.9.01: Density Lecture Demonstrations
1.10: Conversion Factors and Functions
02: Atoms Molecules and Chemical Reactions
2.01: Prelude to Atoms and Reactions
2.02: Macroscopic Properties and Microscopic Models
2.03: The Atomic Theory
2.3.01: Foods- Elemental Diets
2.04: Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of a Chemical Reaction
2.4.01: Foods- The Mineral Nutrients Potassium and Iodine
2.05: Testing the Atomic Theory
2.5.01: Biology- Water
2.06: Atomic Weights
2.07: The Amount of Substance- Moles
2.08: The Mole
2.09: The Amount of Substance
2.10: The Avogadro Constant
2.11: The Molar Mass
2.11.01: Biology- Water
2.12: Formulas and Composition
2.12.01: Biology- Formula and Composition of Water and Glucose
2.12.02: Environment- Fertilizers Formulas and Ecological Stoichiometry
2.12.03: Foods- Iron Supplements
2.12.04: Foods - Salt Additives
2.12.05: Lecture Demonstrations
2.13: Balancing Chemical Equations
03: Using Chemical Equations in Calculations
3.01: Prelude to Chemical Equations
3.02: Equations and Mass Relationships
3.2.01: Cultural Connections- Berthollides- A Challenge to Chemical Stoichiometry
3.2.02: Environment- Atom Efficiency and the 2006 Presidential Green Chemistry Award
3.2.03: Everyday Life- Why Fats Don't Add Up on Food Nutrition Labels
3.2.04: Food- Let's Cook
3.2.05: Foods- Metabolism of Dietary Sugar
3.2.06: Lecture Demonstrations
3.2.07: Sports Physiology and Health- Hydrogen Powered Bicycles Run on Water
3.03: The Limiting Reagent
3.3.01: Cultural Connections- Anthropology and Protein Stoichiometry
3.3.02: Environment- TSP Ecological Stoichiometry and Algal Blooms
3.3.03: Everyday Life- Grilled Cheese Sandwiches and Omelets
3.3.04: Everyday Life- Sodium Silicide Fueled Bicycles
3.3.05: Foods- Protein Nutrition
3.3.06: Forensics- Gunpowder Stoichiometry
3.3.07: Geology- Using the Acid Test to Distinguish the Minerals in Calomine
3.3.08: Lecture Demonstrations
3.3.09: Physics- Rocket Propellants
3.3.10: Sports Physiology and Health- Sodium Silicide Fueled Bicycles
3.04: Percent Yield
3.4.01: Environment- Synthesis of Biodiesel Fuel
3.4.02: Foods- Vegetable Oil Hydrogenation Trans Fats and Percent Yield
3.05: Analysis of Compounds
3.5.01: Foods- Burning or Metabolizing Fats and Sugars
3.06: Thermochemistry
3.07: Energy
3.08: Thermochemical Equations
3.8.01: Biology- Weight of Food and Energy Production
3.8.02: Environment- Gas
3.8.03: Foods- Energy from Fats and Sugars
3.8.04: Geology- Heat Engine at Lost City
3.09: Hess' Law
3.9.01: Biology- Anaerobic Fermentation in Beer and Lactic Acid in Muscles
3.9.02: Environment- Heating Values of Various Fuels
3.9.03: Foods- Fat vs. Sugar Metabolism
3.9.04: Geology- Iron and its Ores
3.9.05: Lecture Demonstration- Carbide Cannon
3.9.06: Sports Physiology and Health- Aerobic vs Anaerobic Energy in Exercise
3.10: Standard Enthalpies of Formation
3.10.01: Biology- Muscle Energy from ATP
3.10.02: Foods- Energy in a Marshmallow
3.10.03: Geology- Calculating the Heat Released by Serpentinization in the Lost City
3.10.04: Sports Physiology and Health- Muscle Energy from ATP
3.11: Solution Concentrations
3.11.01: Biology- Solution Concentrations and Cells
3.11.02: Environment- Determining Safe Mercury Concentrations in Drinking Water
3.11.03: Environment- Determining Water Purity via Biological Oxygen Demand
3.11.04: Foods- Low Glycemic Index Foods and Blood Glucose Concentration
3.11.05: Lecture Demonstration
3.12: Diluting and Mixing Solutions
3.13: Titrations
04: The Structure of Atoms
4.01: Prelude to Atomic Structure
4.02: Groups of Related Elements
4.03: The Periodic Table
4.04: Valence
4.05: Exceptions to the Periodic Law
4.06: Implications of Periodicity for Atomic Theory
4.07: The Nuclear Atom
4.08: Radiation
4.09: The Electron
4.9.01: The Electron Lecture Demonstrations
4.10: The Nucleus
4.11: Atomic Structure and Isotopes
4.12: Isotopes
4.13: Transmutation and Radioactivity
4.13.01: Lecture Demonstrations
4.14: Average Atomic Weights
4.14.01: Lecture Demonstration- Model Mass Spectrometer
4.15: Measurement of Atomic Weights
05: The Electronic Structure of Atoms
5.01: Prelude to Electronic Structure
5.1.01: Biology- Applications of Electronic Structure
5.1.02: Lecture Demonstrations
5.02: Electrons and Valence
5.03: Lewis Diagrams
5.3.01: Lewis Diagrams and Biological and Chemical Properties
5.04: The Wave Nature of the Electron
5.4.01: Biology- The Wave Model for Light and Electrons
5.4.02: Lecture Demonstrations
5.4.03: Sports Physiology and Health- Sea Kayaking and Clapotis
5.05: Wave Mechanics
5.06: The Uncertainty Principle
5.07: Electron Waves in the Hydrogen Atom
5.08: Orbitals
5.8.01: Cultural Connections- Tones on a Drum and Orbital Wave Functions
5.8.02: Lecture Demonstrations
5.09: Quantum Numbers (Electronic)
5.11: Potential Energy
5.12: Electron Density and Potential Energy
5.13: Atoms Having More Than One Electron
5.14: Hydrogen Helium Lithium
5.15: Beryllium Boron Carbon
5.16: Electron Configurations
5.17: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
06: Chemical Bonding - Electron Pairs and Octets
6.01: Prelude to Chemical Bonding
6.02: Ionic Bonding
6.03: Energy and the Formation of Ions
6.04: The Ionic Crystal Lattice
6.05: Ions and Noble-Gas Electron Configurations
6.06: Ionization Energies
6.07: Ionization of Transition and Inner Transition Elements
6.08: Electron Affinities
6.09: Binary Ionic Compounds and Their Properties
6.10: The Octet Rule
6.11: Physical Properties
6.11.01: Lecture Demonstrations
6.12: Chemical Properties
6.13: The Covalent Bond
6.14: Covalent Molecules and the Octet Rule
6.15: Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules
6.15.01: An Excess of Bonds
6.15.02: Deciding on a Skeleton Structure
6.15.03: Multiple Bonds
6.16: Examples of Lewis Structures
6.17: Polyatomic Ions
6.18: Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
6.19: Atomic Sizes
6.20: Ionic Sizes
6.21: Periodic Variation of IE and EA
6.21.01: Lecture Demonstrations
07: Further Aspects of Covalent Bonding
7.01: Prelude to Covalent Bonding
7.02: Exceptions to the Octet Rule
7.2.01: Biology- Biologically Active Exceptions to the Octet Rule
7.03: The Shapes of Molecules
7.3.01: Lecture Demonstrations
7.04: Molecules with Lone Pairs
7.4.01: Lecture Demonstrations
7.05: Multiple Bonds and Molecular Shapes
7.06: Hybrid Orbitals
7.07: Orbital Descriptions of Multiple Bonds
7.08: Sigma and Pi Bonds
7.09: Polarizability
7.9.01: Biology- Polarizability of Biologically Significant Atoms
7.10: Polar Covalent Bonds
7.10.01: Biology- Nonpolar Iodine and Polar Hydrogen Iodide
7.10.02: Lecture Demonstrations
7.11: Electronegativity
7.12: Polarity in Polyatomic Molecules
7.12.01: Biology- The Hydrophobic Effect and Properties of Small Polyatomic Molecules
7.12.02: Lecture Demonstrations
7.13: Formal Charge and Oxidation Numbers
7.14: Resonance
08: Properties of Organic Compounds
8.01: Prelude to Organic Compounds
8.1.01: Astronomy- Mars Meteor and Extraterrestrial Life
8.1.02: Geology- Earth's Oldest Fossils
8.02: Covalent Compounds and Intermolecular Forces
8.03: Dipole Forces
8.04: London Forces
8.4.01: picChapter 8 page 3.jpg
8.4.02: Atomic Radii
8.4.03: Atomic sizes on periodic table.jpg
8.4.04: Ionization Energies
8.4.4.01: pic IonizationEnergyAtomicWeight.PNG
8.4.05: Ionization Energies and Electron Affinities
8.4.5.01: Electron Affinities
8.4.5.1.01: pic Ionization Energies and Electron Affinities.jpg
8.4.06: Polarizability on London Forces.jpg
8.05: Organic Compounds- Hydrocarbons
8.5.01: Crude Oil Distillation.jpg
8.06: Alkanes
8.6.01: Astronomy- Titan
8.6.02: Boiling Points of Some Organic Compounds Whose Molecules Contain 32 or 34 Electrons
8.6.03: Cultural Connections- Rockets
8.07: Cycloalkanes
8.08: Properties of Alkanes
8.8.01: pic boiling points.jpg
8.8.02: Table of Electronegativities
8.8.03: Table of Straight Chain Alkanes
8.09: Aromatic Hydrocarbons
8.10: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
8.10.01: Chapter 7 page 19-2.jpg
8.11: Hydrogen Bonding- Water
8.11.01: Atomic Radii and Ionic Radii
8.11.02: H-Bonding Between 2 HF Molecules.jpg
8.11.03: Nonmetal hydride bp.jpg
8.12: Ice and Water
8.12.01: pic Ice a hexagonal crystal.jpg
8.12.02: Boiling Points of Hydrides
8.13: Organic Compounds-Some Additional Classes
8.14: Alcohols
8.15: Ethers
8.16: Aldehydes and Ketones
8.16.01: Biology- Ketosis
8.16.02: Cultural Connections- The Cinnamon Trade
8.17: Carboxylic Acids
8.17.01: Biology- Entomology
8.18: Esters
8.19: Organic Nitrogen Compounds
8.20: Macromolecular Substances
8.21: Diamond and Graphite
8.22: Silicon Dioxide
8.23: Synthetic Macromolecules- Some Applied Organic Chemistry
8.24: Addition Polymers
8.25: Condensation Polymers
8.26: Cross-Linking
09: Gases
9.01: Prelude to Gases
9.02: Property of Gases
9.03: Pressure
9.04: Measurement of Pressure
9.4.01: Lecture Demonstrations
9.05: Gas Laws
9.06: Avogadro's Law
9.07: Boyle's Law
9.7.01: Lecture Demonstrations
9.08: Charles's Law
9.8.01: Lecture Demonstration
9.09: Gay-Lussac's Law
9.10: The Ideal Gas Equation
9.10.01: Lecture Demonstration
9.11: The Law of Combining Volumes
9.12: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
9.12.01: Lecture Demonstration
9.13: Kinetic Theory of Gases- Postulates of the Kinetic Theory
9.14: Kinetic Theory of Gases- The Total Molecular Kinetic Energy
9.15: Kinetic Theory of Gases- Molecular Speeds
9.16: Kinetic Theory of Gases - Graham's Law of Diffusion
9.16.01: Lecture Demonstrations
9.17: Kinetic Theory of Gases- The Distribution of Molecular Speeds
9.18: Deviations from the Ideal Gas Law
10: Solids Liquids and Solutions
10.01: Prelude to Solids Liquids and Solutions
10.02: Solids
10.03: Lattices and Unit Cells
10.04: Crystal Systems
10.05: Closest-Packed Structures
10.06: Liquids
10.07: Viscosity
10.7.01: Lecture Demonstration
10.08: Amorphous Materials- Glasses
10.09: Phase Transitions
10.10: Enthalpy of Fusion and Enthalpy of Vaporization
10.10.01: Astronomy- Water on Mars
10.10.02: Lecture Demonstrations
10.11: Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium
10.12: Boiling Point
10.13: Critical Temperature and Pressure
10.14: Phase Diagrams
10.15: Solutions
10.16: Saturated and Supersaturated Solutions
10.17: Miscibility
10.17.01: Cultural Connections- Oil and Water
10.18: Measuring the Composition of a Solution
10.19: Solubility and Molecular Structure
10.21: The Separation of Mixtures
10.22: Distillation
10.23: Chromatography
10.24: Colligative Properties of Solutions
10.25: Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression
10.26: Osmotic Pressure
10.27: Colloids
11: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
11.01: Prelude to Aqueous Phase Reactions
11.02: Ions in Solution (Electrolytes)
11.03: Precipitation Reactions
11.04: Hydration of Ions
11.05: Hydrogen and Hydroxide Ions
11.06: Acid-Base Reactions
11.07: Acids
11.08: Bases
11.09: Strong Acids and Bases
11.10: Weak Acids
11.11: Weak Bases
11.12: Amphiprotic Species
11.13: Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
11.14: Lewis Acids and Bases
11.15: Redox Reactions
11.16: Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions
11.17: Balancing Redox Equations
11.18: Common Oxidizing Agents
11.19: Common Reducing Agents
11.20: Substances Which Are Both Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
11.21: Redox Couples
12: Chemistry of the Representative Elements
12.01: Prelude to Descriptive Chemistry
12.02: Group IA - Alkali Metals
12.03: Group II- Alkaline Earths
12.04: Group IIIA
12.05: Group IVA
12.06: Group VA Elements
12.07: Group VIA- Chalcogens
12.7.01: Cultural Connections- Sulfur
12.08: Group VIIA- Halogens
12.09: Group VIIIA- Noble Gases
13: Chemical Equilibrium
13.01: Prelude to Equilibria
13.02: The Equilibrium State
13.03: The Equilibrium Constant
13.04: The Law of Chemical Equilibrium
13.05: The Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure
13.06: Calculating the Extent of a Reaction
13.07: Successive Approximation
13.08: Predicting the Direction of a Reaction
13.09: Le Chateliers Principle
13.10: The Effect of a Change in Pressure
13.11: The Effect of a Change in Temperature
13.12: Effect of Adding a Reactant or Product
13.13: The Molecular View of Equilibrium
14: Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions
14.01: Prelude to Ionization of Water
14.02: Ionization of Water
14.03: pH and pOH
14.04: The pH of Solutions of Weak Acids
14.05: The pH of Solutions of Weak Bases
14.06: Polyprotic Acids and Bases
14.07: Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs and pH
14.7.01: Foods- From Cleaning and Disinfection to Microbial Nutrition and Protein Modification
14.08: Buffer Solutions
14.8.01: Foods- Food Additives
14.8.02: Foods- Production of Food Ingredients
14.8.03: Foods- The Effect of Polyols
14.09: Indicators
14.10: Titration Curves
14.10.01: Foods- Acid Value and the Quality of Fats and Oils
14.11: The Solubility Product
14.12: The Common-Ion Effect
14.12.01: Foods- Calcium Tartrate and Treatment of Wine Waster-Waters
14.13: The Solubilities of Salts of Weak Acids
15: Thermodynamics- Atoms Molecules and Energy
15.01: Prelude to Thermodynamics
15.02: Heat Capacities
15.2.01: Lecture Demonstrations
15.03: Heat Capacity and Microscopic Changes
15.04: Internal Energy
15.05: Thermodynamic Terms and Conventions
15.06: Enthalpy
15.07: Measuring the Enthalpy Change
15.7.01: Lecture Demonstrations
15.08: State Functions
15.09: Standard Pressure
15.10: Bond Enthalpies
15.11: Bond Enthalpies and Exothermic or Endothermic Reactions
15.12: Fossil Fuels and the Energy Crisis
15.13: Photosynthesis
16: Entropy and Spontaneous Reactions
16.01: Prelude to Spontaneity
16.02: Spontaneous Processes and Molecular Probability
16.03: Atoms Molecules and Probability
16.04: Rates of Spontaneous Processes
16.05: Thermodynamic Probability W and Entropy
16.06: Getting Acquainted with Entropy
16.07: Standard Molar Entropies
16.08: Dependence of S on Molecular Structure
16.09: Some Trends In Entropy Values
16.10: Entropy Changes in Gaseous Reactions
16.11: Entropy Randomness and Disorder
16.12: Measuring the Entropy
16.13: Including the Surroundings
16.14: The Free Energy
16.15: Maximum Useful Work
16.16: Equilibrium Constants Revisited
17: Electrochemical Cells
17.01: Prelude to Electrochemistry
17.02: Electrolysis
17.03: Electrolysis of Brine
17.04: Aluminum Production
17.05: Refining of Copper
17.06: Electroplating
17.07: Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
17.08: Galvanic Cells
17.09: Cell Notation and Conventions
17.10: Electromotive Force of Galvanic Cells
17.11: Storage Batteries
17.12: Fuel Cells
17.13: Galvanic Cells and Free Energy
17.14: Cells at Non-Standard Conditions
18: Chemical Kinetics
18.01: Prelude to Kinetics
18.02: The Rate of Reaction
18.03: 18.2-The Rate Equation
18.04: Microscopic View of Chemical Reactions
18.05: Unimolecular Processes
18.06: Bimolecular Processes
18.07: Termolecular Processes
18.08: 18.7-Reaction Mechanisms
18.09: 18.8-Increasing the Rate of a Reaction
18.10: The Effect of Temperature
18.11: Catalysis
18.12: Heterogeneous Catalysis
19: Nuclear Chemistry
19.01: Prelude to Nuclear Chemistry
19.02: Naturally Occurring Radioactivity
19.03: Radioactive Series
19.04: Artificially Induced Nuclear Reactions
19.05: Bombardment with Positive Ions
19.06: Neutron Bombardment
19.07: Further Modes of Decay - Positron Emission and Electron Capture
19.08: Nuclear Stability
19.09: The Rate of Radioactive Decay
19.10: Instruments for Radiation Detection
19.11: Units of Radiation Dose
19.12: Uses of Artificial Isotopes
19.13: Mass-Energy Relationships
19.13.01: Lecture Demonstrations on Mass Energy Relationships
19.14: Nuclear Fission
19.14.01: Nuclear Fission and WWII
19.15: Nuclear Power Plants
19.16: Breeder Reactors
19.17: Nuclear Fusion
20: Molecules in Living Systems
20.01: Prelude to Biochemistry
20.02: The Elements of Life
20.03: The Building Blocks of Biochemistry
20.04: Fats and Lipids
20.05: Nonpolar Lipids
20.06: Polar Lipids
20.07: Carbohydrates
20.08: Simple Sugars
20.09: Disaccharides
20.10: Polysaccharides
20.11: Proteins
20.12: Polypeptide Chains
20.13: The Amino Acids
20.14: Primary Protein Structure
20.15: Secondary Protein Structure
20.16: Higher-Order Structure
20.17: Nucleic Acids
20.18: Nucleic Acid Structure
20.19: Information Storage
20.20: The Double Helix
20.21: DNA Replication
20.22: Transcription and Translation
21: Spectra and Structure of Atoms and Molecules
21.01: Prelude to Spectroscopy
21.02: The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
21.03: Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Theory
21.04: Bohr Theory of the Atom
21.05: The Spectra of Molecules- Infrared
21.06: The Visible and Ultraviolet Spectra of Molecules- Molecular Orbitals
21.07: Molecular Orbitals
21.08: Delocalized Electrons
21.09: Conjugated Systems
22: Metals
22.01: Prelude to Metals
22.02: Metallic Bonding
22.03: Metallurgy
22.04: Beneficiation
22.05: Reduction of Metals
22.06: Refining of Metals
22.07: Corrosion
22.08: Coordination Compounds
22.09: Geometry of Complexes
22.10: Chelating Agents
22.11: Transitional Metal Ions in Aqueous Solutions