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Map: Raven Biology 12th Edition

Introductory and General Biology Biology

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Language: EN
Category: Basic Sciences

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Contents· 775 sections

01: The Science of Biology
1.01: The Science of Life
1.02: The Nature of Science
1.03: An Example of Scientific Inquiry- Darwin and Evolution
1.3.1: Evolution of Life
1.3.2: Scientific Theories
1.04: Core Concepts in Biology
02: The Nature of Molecules and the Properties of Water
2.01: The Nature of Atoms
2.02: Elements Found in Living Systems
2.03: The Nature of Chemical Bonds
2.3.1: Electronegativity and types of Chemical Bonds
2.04: Water- A Vital Compound
2.05: Properties of Water
2.06: Acids and Bases
03: The Chemical Building Blocks of Life
3.01: Carbon- The Framework of Biological Molecules
3.1.01: Carbon
3.1.1.1: The Chemical Basis for Life
3.1.1.2: Hydrocarbons
3.1.1.3: Organic Isomers
3.1.1.4: Organic Enantiomers
3.1.1.5: Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
3.1.02: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
3.1.2.1: Types of Biological Macromolecules
3.1.2.2: Dehydration Synthesis
3.1.2.3: Hydrolysis
3.02.: Carbohydrates - Energy Storage and Structural Molecules
3.2.1.1: Carbohydrate Molecules
3.2.1.2: Importance of Carbohydrates
3.03: Nucleic Acids- Information Molecules
3.3.1: DNA and RNA
3.04: Proteins- Molecules with Diverse Structures and Functions
3.4.1: Types and Functions of Proteins
3.4.2: Amino Acids
3.4.3: Protein Structure
3.4.4: Denaturation and Protein Folding
3.05: Lipids- Hydrophobic Molecules
3.5.1: Lipid Molecules
3.5.2: Phospholipids
3.5.3: Steroids
04: Cell Structure
4.01: Cell Theory
4.1.1: Cells as the Basic Unit of Life
4.1.2: Microscopy
4.1.3: Cell Theory
4.1.4: Cell Size
4.02: Prokaryotic Cells
4.2.1: Prokaryotic Structure
4.2.2: Prokaryotic Classification
4.2.3: Prokaryotic Cells
4.03: Eukaryotic Cells
4.04: The Endomembrane System
4.05: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts- Cellular Generators
4.5.1: Mitochondria
4.5.2: Chloroplasts
4.06: The Cytoskeleton
4.6.1: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeletons
4.6.2: The Cytoskeleton
4.07: Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement
4.7.1: Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
4.08: Cell-to-Cell Interactions
4.8.1: Intercellular Junctions
05: Membranes
5.01: The Structure of Membranes
5.02: Phospholipids- The Membrane's Foundation
5.03: Proteins- Multifunctional Components
5.04: Passive Transport Across Membranes
5.05: Active Transport Across Membranes
5.5.1: Active Transport I
5.5.2: Active Transport II
5.06: Bulk Transport by Endocytosis and Exocytosis
06: Energy and Metabolism
6.01: The Flow of Energy in Living Systems
6.1.1: The Role of Energy and Metabolism
6.1.2: Types of Energy
6.02: The Laws of Thermodynamics and Free Energy
6.2.1: Free Energy
6.2.2: The First Law of Thermodynamics
6.2.3: The Second Law of Thermodynamics
6.2.4: Activation Energy
6.03: Adenosine Triphosphate
6.04: Enzymes- Biological Catalysts
6.05: Metabolism- The Chemical Description of Cell Function
07: How Cells Harvest Energy
7.01: Overview of Respiration
7.1.1: Transforming Chemical Energy
7.1.2: Electrons and Energy
7.1.3: ATP in Metabolism
7.02: Glycolysis- Splitting Glucose
7.2.1: Glycolysis
7.2.2: Glycolysis
7.03: The Oxidation of Pyruvate Produces Acetyl-CoA
7.04: The Citric Acid Cycle
7.05: Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis
7.5.1: Electron Transport Chain
7.5.2: Chemiosmosis and Oxidative Phosphorylation
7.06: ATP Energy Yield Energy Yield of Aerobic Respiration
7.07: Regulation of Aerobic Respiration
7.7.1: Connections of Carbohydrate Protein and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
7.08: Oxidation without O2
7.09: Catabolism of Proteins and Fats
7.9.1: Connecting Proteins to Glucose Metabolism
7.9.2: Connecting Lipids to Glucose Metabolism
7.10: Evolution of Metabolism
08: Photosynthesis
8.01: Overview of Photosynthesis
8.1.1: The Purpose and Process of Photosynthesis
8.1.2: Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis
8.1.3: The Two Parts of Photosynthesis
8.02: Photosynthesis - Dicovering the Secrets
8.03: Pigments
8.3.1: Introduction to Light Energy
8.3.2: Absorption of Light
8.04: Photosystem Organization
8.4.1: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
8.4.2: Processes of the Light-Dependent Reactions
8.5: Carbon Fixation- The Calvin Cycle
8.5.1: The Calvin Cycle
8.6: Photorespiration
8.6.1A: CAM and C4 Photosynthesis
09: Cell Communication
9.01: Overview of Cell Communication
9.1.1: Methods of Intracellular Signaling
9.02: Types of Receptors
9.03: Intracellular Receptors
9.3.1: Nuclear Hormone Receptors
9.04: Signal Transduction Through Receptor Kinases
9.4.1: Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)
9.05: Signal Transduction Through G Protein Coupled Receptors
9.5.1: G-protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)
10: How Cells Divide
10.01: Bacterial Cell Division
10.02: Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
10.03: Overview of the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
10.04: Interphase- Preparation for Mitosis
10.05: M phase- Chromosome Segregation and the Division of Cytoplasmic Contents
10.06: Control of the Cell Cycle
10.07: Genetics of Cancer
11: Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
11.01: Sexual Reproduction Requires Meiosis
11.02: Features of Meiosis
11.2.1: Meiosis I
11.2.2: Meiosis II
11.03: The Process of Meiosis
11.04: Summing Up- Meiosis Versus Mitosis
12: Patterns of Inheritance
12.01: The Mystery of Heredity
12.1.1: Introduction to Mendelian Inheritance
12.1.2: Mendels Model System
12.02: Monohybrid Crosses- The Principle of Segregation
12.2.1: Pedigree Analysis
12.2.2: Inferring the Mode of Inheritance
12.2.3: Phenotypes and Genotypes
12.2.4: Mendelian Crosses
12.2.5: Mendels Law of Segregation
12.2.6: The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross
12.2.7: Garden Pea Characteristics Revealed the Basics of Heredity
12.03: Dihybrid Crosses and Mendels Law of Independent Assortment
12.04: Rules of Probability for Mendelian Inheritance
12.05: Crossing Techniques Used in Classical Genetics
12.06: Extensions to Mendel
12.6.1: Complex Inheritance
12.6.2: Quantitative Trait Loci
12.6.3: Pleiotropy
12.6.4: Alternatives to Dominance and Recessiveness
12.6.5: Epistasis
13: Chromosomes Mapping and the Meiosis-Inheritance Connection
13.01: Sex Linkage and the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
13.02: Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination
13.2.01: Sex Chromosomes
13.2.02: Inferring the Mode of Inheritance
13.03: Exceptions to Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
13.3.01: Organellar Inheritance
13.04: Genetic Mapping
13.4.01: Classification and Detection of Molecular Markers
13.4.2B: Genetic Linkage and Distances
13.05: Human Genetic Disorders
13.5.01: Imprinted Genes
13.5.2: Prenatal Screening
14: DNA- The Genetic Material
14.01: The Nature of Genetic Material
14.02: DNA Structure
14.03: Basic Characteristics of DNA Replication
14.04: Prokaryotic Replication
14.4.01: DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
14.05: Eukaryotic Replication
14.06: DNA Repair
15: Genes and How They Work
15.01: The Nature of Genes
15.1.01: The Function of Genes
15.1.02: Central Dogma- DNA to RNA to protein
15.1.03: Transcription and mRNA structure
15.02: The Genetic Code
15.03: Prokaryotic Transcription
15.04: Eukaryotic Transcription
15.05: Eukaryotic pre-mRNA Splicing
15.06: The Structure of tRNA and Ribosomes
15.07: The Process of Translation
15.7.01: Regulating protein localization
15.08: Summarizing Gene Expression
15.09: Mutation- Altered Genes
16: Control of Gene Expression
16.01: Control of Gene Expression
16.02: Regulatory Proteins
16.2.01: D5. DNA Binding Proteins
16.03: Prokaryotic Regulation
16.04: Eukaryotic Regulation
16.4.1: The Promoter and the Transcription Machinery
16.4.2: Transcriptional Enhancers and Repressors
16.05: Chromatin Structure Affects Gene Expression
16.5.1: Epigenetic Control- Regulating Access to Genes within the Chromosome
16.06: Eukaryotic Posttranscriptional Regulation
16.6.01: miRNA
16.6.02: The Translation of RNA into Proteins
16.6.3: RNA Splicing
16.6.4: The Initiation Complex and Translation Rate
16.6.5: Regulating Protein Activity and Longevity
16.07: Regulating Protein Activity and Longevity
17: Biotechnology
17.01: Recombinant DNA
17.1.01: Overview of Recombinant DNA Technology
17.1.02: Introduction of recombinant DNA into cell and replication- Vectors
17.1.03: Introducting Recombinant DNA into Host Cells
17.1.04: Make and Screen a cDNA Library
17.02: Amplifying DNA Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction
17.2.01: qPCR
17.03: Creating Correcting and Analyzing Genetic Variation
17.3.01: DNA Fingerprinting
17.3.02: PCR-Based Mutagenesis
17.3.03: Genome Editing (CRISPR)
17.04: Constructing and Using Transgenic Organisms
17.4.01: Transgenic Animals
17.4.02: Transgenic Plants
17.05: Environmental Applications
17.5.01: Bioremediation
17.5.02: Water Treatment
17.5.3: Genomics and Biofuels
17.06: Medical Applications
17.6.01: Recombinant Protein Production
17.6.02: Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization
17.6.03: Microarrays
17.6.04: Immunoassays
17.6.05: Gene Therapy
17.07: Agricultural Applications
18: Genomics
18.01: Mapping Genomes
18.02: Sequencing Genomes
18.03: Genome Projects
18.3.01: The Human Genome Project
18.04: Genome Annotation and Databases
18.4.01: Genome Annotation
18.4.02: Non-Coding Elements
18.4.03: The ENCODE Project
18.05: Comparative and Functional Genomics
18.5.01: Comparative Genomics
18.5.02: Transcriptomics
18.5.3: Basic Techniques in Protein Analysis
18.06: Applications of Genomics
18.6.1: Cancer Proteomics
19: Cellular Mechanisms of Development
19.01: The Process of Development
19.1.01: Embryonic Development
19.02: Cell Division
19.2.01: Cell Growth and Division
19.2.02: Frog Embryology
19.2.03: Cleavage
19.03: Cell Differentiation
19.3.01: Stem Cells
19.3.02: Embryonic Stem Cells
19.04: Nuclear Reprogramming
19.4.01: The Organizer
19.4.02: Reproductive Cloning
19.05: Pattern Formation
19.5.01: Establishing Body Axes
19.5.02: Segmentation
19.06: Evolution of Pattern Formation
19.6.01: Homeobox Genes
19.07: Morphogenesis
19.7.01: Apoptosis
20: Genes Within Populations
20.01: Genetic Variation and Evolution
20.02: Changes in Allele Frequency
20.03: Five Agents of Evolutionary Change
20.04: Quantifying Natural Selection
20.4.01: Hardy-Weinberg
20.05: Reproductive Strategies
20.5.1: Sexual Selection
20.06: Natural Selection's Role in Maintaining Variation
20.6.01: Natural Selection and Adaptive Evolution
20.6.02: Frequency-Dependent Selection
20.07: Selection Acting on Traits Affected by Multiple Genes
20.7.1: Stabilizing Directional and Diversifying Selection
20.08: Experimental Studies of Natural Selection
20.09: Interactions Among Evolutionary Forces
20.9.1: Genetic Variation
20.9.2: Genetic Drift
20.9.3: Gene Flow and Mutation
20.9.4: Nonrandom Mating and Environmental Variance
20.10: The Limits of Selection
21: The Evidence for Evolution
21.01: The Beaks of Darwin's Finches- Evidence of Natural Selection
21.02: Speciation
21.03: Artificial Selection- Human-Initiated Change
21.04: Fossil Evidence of Evolution
21.4.1: The Fossil Record as Evidence for Evolution
21.4.2: Fossil Formation
21.4.3: Gaps in the Fossil Record
21.4.4: Carbon Dating and Estimating Fossil Age
21.4.5: The Fossil Record and the Evolution of the Modern Horse
21.4.6: Homologous Structures
21.4.7: Convergent Evolution
21.4.8: Vestigial Structures
21.4.9: Biogeography and the Distribution of Species
21.05: Anatomical Evidence of Evolution
21.06: Convergent Evolution and the Biogeographical Record
21.6.1: Biogeographical Record
21.07: Darwin's Critics
22: The Origin of Species
22.01: The Nature of Species and the Biological Species Concept
22.1.01: Understanding Evolution
22.1.1.1: What is Evolution
22.1.1.2: Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
22.1.1.3: The Galapagos Finches and Natural Selection
22.1.1.4: Processes and Patterns of Evolution
22.1.1.5: Evidence of Evolution
22.1.1.6: Misconceptions of Evolution
22.1.02: Formation of New Species
22.1.2.1: The Biological Species Concept
22.1.2.2: Reproductive Isolation
22.1.2.3: Speciation
22.1.2.4: Allopatric Speciation
22.1.2.5: Sympatric Speciation
22.1.03: Hybrid Zones and Rates of Speciation
22.1.3.1: Hybrid Zones
22.1.3.2: Varying Rates of Speciation
22.1.04: Evolution of Genomes
22.1.4.1: Genomic Similiarities between Distant Species
22.1.4.2: Genome Evolution
22.1.4.3: Whole-Genome Duplication
22.1.4.4: Gene Duplications and Divergence
22.1.4.5: Noncoding DNA
22.1.4.6: Variations in Size and Number of Genes
22.1.05: Evidence of Evolution
22.1.5.1: The Fossil Record as Evidence for Evolution
22.1.5.2: Fossil Formation
22.1.5.3: Gaps in the Fossil Record
22.1.5.4: Carbon Dating and Estimating Fossil Age
22.1.5.5: The Fossil Record and the Evolution of the Modern Horse
22.1.5.6: Homologous Structures
22.1.5.7: Convergent Evolution
22.1.5.8: Vestigial Structures
22.1.5.9: Biogeography and the Distribution of Species
22.02: Natural Selection and Reproductive Isolation
22.03: The Role of Genetic Drift and Natural Selection in Speciation
22.3.1: Gene Duplications and Divergence
22.04: The Geography of Speciation
22.05: Adaptive Radiation and Biological Diversity
22.06: The Pace of Evolution
22.07: Speciation and Extinction Through Time
23: Systematics Phylogeny and Comparative Biology
23.01: Systematics
23.02: Cladistics
23.03: Systematics and Classification
23.04: Phylogenetics and Comparative Biology
23.05: Phylogenetics and Disease Evolution
24: Genome Evolution
24.01: Comparative Genomics
24.02: Genome Size
24.03: Evolution within Genomes
24.3.01: Eukaryotic Transcription
24.3.02: Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
24.04: Gene Function and Expression Patterns
24.05: Applying Comparative Genomics
25: The Origin and Diversity of Life
25.01: Deep Time
25.02: Origins of Life
25.03: Evidence for Early Life
25.3.1: Classification of Prokaryotes
25.3.2: The Origins of Archaea and Bacteria
25.3.3: Extremophiles and Biofilms
25.04: Earth's Changing System
25.4.01: Eukaryotic Origins
25.4.02: Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
25.05: Ever-Changing Life on Earth
25.5.01: Eukaryotic Origins
25.5.02: The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom
26: Viruses
26.01: The Nature of Viruses
26.1.01: Virus Infections and Hosts
26.02: Viral Diversity
26.03: Bacteriophage- Bacterial Viruses
26.04: Viral Diseases of Humans
26.05: Prions and Viroids- Infectious Subviral Particles
27: Prokaryotes
27.01: Prokaryotic Diversity
27.02: Prokaryotic Cell Structure
27.03: Prokaryotic Genetics
27.04: The Metabolic Diversity of Prokaryotes
27.05: Microbial Ecology
27.06: Bacterial Diseases of Humans
28: Protists
28.01: Eukaryotic Origins and Endosymbiosis
28.02: Overview of Protists
28.03: Characteristics of Excavata
28.04: Characteristics of Chromalveolata
28.05: Characteristics of Rhizaria
28.06: Characteristics of Archaeplastidia
28.07: Characteristics of Amoebozoa
28.08: Characteristics of Opisthokonta
29: Seedless Plants
29.01: Origin of Land Plants
29.1.1: Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
29.02: Bryophytes Have a Dominant Gametophyte Generation
29.2.1: Bryophytes
29.2.2: Liverworts and Hornworts
29.2.3: Mosses
29.2.4: Sporophytes and Gametophytes in Seedless Plants
29.03: Tracheophytes Have a Dominant Sporophyte Generation
29.3.1: Seedless Vascular Plants
29.3.2: Vascular Tissue- Xylem and Phloem
29.3.3: The Evolution of Roots in Seedless Plants
29.04: Lycophytes Diverged from the Main Lineage of Vascular Plants
29.4.1: Ferns and Other Seedless Vascular Plants
29.05: Pterophytes Are the Ferns and Their Relatives
29.5.1: Ferns and Other Seedless Vascular Plants
30: Seed Plants
30.01: The Evolution of Seed Plants
30.02: Gymnosperms - Plants with Naked Seeds
30.2.1: Characteristics of Gymnosperms
30.2.2: Life Cycle of a Conifer
30.2.3: Diversity of Gymnosperms
30.03: Angiosperms - The Flowering Plants
30.3.1: Angiosperm Flowers
30.3.2: The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
30.3.3: Diversity of Angiosperms
30.04: Seeds
30.4A: The Evolution of Seed Plants and Adaptations for Land
30.05: Fruit
30.5.1: Angsiosperm Fruit
31: Fungi
31.01: Classification of Fungi
31.02: Fungal Forms Nutrition and Reproduction
31.03: Fungal Ecology
31.3.1: Fungi Habitat Decomposition and Recycling
31.3.2: Mutualistic Relationships with Fungi and Fungivores
31.04: Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
31.05: Basidomycota- The Club (Basidium) Fungi
31.06: Ascomycota- The Sac (Ascus) Fungi
31.07: Glomeromycota- Asexual Plant Symbionts
31.08: Zygomycota- Zygote-Producing Fungi
31.09: Chytridmycota and Relatives- Fungi with Zoospores
31.10: Microsporidia- Unicellular Parasites
32: Animal Diversity and the Evolution of Body Plans
32.01: Some General Features of Animals
32.02: Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
32.03: Animal Phylogeny
32.3.01: Animal Phylogeny
32.04: Parazoa- Animals that Lack Specialized Tissues
32.05: Eumetazoa- Animals with True Tissues
32.5.1: Phylum Cnidaria
32.5.2: Class Anthozoa
32.5.3: Class Scyphozoa
32.5.4: Class Cubozoa and Class Hydrozoa
32.06: The Bilateria
32.6.1: Molecular Analyses and Modern Phylogenetic Trees
33: Protostomes
33.01: The Clades of Protostomes
33.1.01: Superphylum Ecdysozoa
33.1.2: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
33.1.3: Phylum Platyhelminthes
33.1.4: Phylum Rotifera
33.1.5: Phylum Nemertea
33.1.6: Phylum Mollusca
33.1.7: Classification of Phylum Mollusca
33.1.8: Phylum Annelida
33.02: Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
33.2.1: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
33.2.2: Phylum Platyhelminthes
33.03: Rotifers (Rotifera)
33.3.1: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
33.3.2: Phylum Rotifera
33.04: Mollusks (Mollusca)
33..1E: Phylum Mollusca
33.4.2: Classification of Phylum Mollusca
33.05: Ribbon Worms (Nemertea)
33.06: Annelids (Annelida)
33.07: Bryozoans (Bryozoa) and Brachiopods (Brachiopoda)
33.08: Roundworms (Nematoda)
33.09: Arthropods (Arthropoda)
33.9.1: Subphyla of Arthropoda
34: Deuterostomes
34.01: Echinoderms
34.02: Chordates
34.03: Nonvertebrate Chordates
34.04: Vertebrate Chordates
34.05: Fishes
34.06: Amphibians
34.07: Reptiles
34.08: Birds
34.09: Mammals
34.10: Evolution of Primates
35: Plant Form
35.01: Organization of the Plant Body- An Overview
35.1.1: Plant Tissues and Organ Systems
35.02: Plant Tissues
35.2.01: Plant Tissues
35.03: Roots- Anchoring and Absorption Structures
35.3.1: Types of Root Systems and Zones of Growth
35.3.2: Root Modifications
35.04: Stems- Support for Above Ground Organs
35.4.1: Functions of Stems
35.4.2: Stem Anatomy
35.4.3: Primary and Secondary Growth in Stems
35.4.4: Stem Modifications
35.05: Leaves- Photosynthetic Organs
35.5.1: Leaf Structure and Arrangment
35.5.2: Types of Leaf Forms
35.5.3: Leaf Structure Function and Adaptation
36: Transport in Plants
36.01: Transport Mechanisms
36.02: Water and Mineral Absorption
36.2.1: Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem
36.03: Xylem Transport
36.04: Rate of Transpiration
36.4.01: Stomatal Opening and Closing
36.05: Water-Stress Responses
36.5.01: Response to Water Stress
36.06: Phloem Transport
37: Plant Nutrition and Soils
37.01: Soils- The Substrates on Which Plants Depend
37.02: Plant Nutrients
37.03: Special Nutritional Strategies
37.04: Carbon-Nitrogen Balance and Global Change
37.05: Phytoremediation
37.5.01: Bioremediation
38: Plant Defense Responses
38.01: Physical Defenses
38.1.1: Plant Defenses Against Herbivores
38.1.2: Plant Defenses Against Pathogens
38.02: Chemical Defenses
38.2.1: Plant Defenses Against Herbivores
38.2.2: Plant Defenses Against Pathogens
38.03: Animals That Protect Plants
38.04: Systemic Responses to Invaders
38.4.01: Jasmonates
39: Sensory Systems in Plants
39.01: Responses to Light
39.1.01: Plant Responses to Light
39.1.02: Photoperiodism
39.1.3: The Phytochrome System and Red Light Response
39.1.4: Blue Light Response
39.02: Responses to Gravity
39.2.1: Plant Responses to Gravity
39.03: Responses to Mechanical Stimuli
39.3.1: Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
39.04: Responses to Water and Temperature
39.4.01: Abscisic Acid
39.05: Hormones and Sensory Systems
39.5.01: Auxin
39.5.02: Cytokinins
39.5.03: Gibberellins
39.5.04: Ethylene
39.5.05: Abscisic Acid
39.5.06: Other Signaling Molecules
40: Plant Reproduction
40.01: Reproductive Development
40.1.1: Plant Growth
40.02: Making Flowers
40.2.1: Flowering
40.03: Structure and Evolution of Flowers
40.3.1: Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
40.04: Pollination and Fertilization
40.4.1: Pollination and Fertilization
40.4.1: Pollination by Bats Birds Wind and Water
40.4.1: Pollination by Insects
40.05: Embryo Development
40.5.01: Embryogenesis
40.5.02: Mature Embryos and Seed Structure
40.5.3: Double Fertilization in Plants
40.06: Germination (NEW)
40.6.01: Germination
40.07: Asexual Reproduction
40.08: Plant Life Spans
41: The Animal Body and Principles of Regulation
41.01: Organization of Animal Bodies
41.02: Epithelial Tissue
41.03: Connective Tissue
41.3.01: Animal Tissues
41.04: Muscle Tissue
41.4B: Muscles
41.05: Nerve Tissue
41.06: Overview of Vertebrate Organ Systems
29.0: Prelude to Vertebrates
29.1: Chordates
29.2: Fishes
29.3: Amphibians
29.4: Reptiles
29.5: Birds
29.6: Mammals
41.07: Homeostasis
41.08: Regulating Body Temperature
41.8.01: Homeostasis
42: The Nervous System
42.01: The Nervous System Organization
42.1.01: The Peripheral Nervous System
42.02: The Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Transmission
42.2.01: Sensory Processes
42.03: Synapses- Where Neurons Communicate With Other Cells
42.04: The Central Nervous System- Brain and Spinal Cord
42.05: The Peripheral Nervous System- Spinal and Cranial Nerves
43: Sensory Systems
43.01: Overview of Sensory Receptors
43.02: Thermoreceptors- Nociceptors and Electromagnetic Receptors- Temperature
43.03: Mechanoreceptors 1- Touch Pressure and Body Position
43.04: Mechanoreceptors 2- Hearing Vibration and Balance
43.4.01: Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
43.05: Chemoreceptors- Taste Smell and pH
43.06: Vision
43.07: Evolution and the Development of Eyes
44: The Endocrine System
44.01: Regulation of Body Processes by Chemical Messengers
44.1.01: Types of Hormones
44.1.02: Regulation of Body Processes
44.1.03: Endocrine Glands
44.02: Overview of Hormone Action
44.03: The Pituitary and Hypothalamus- The Body's Control Centers
44.3.01: Regulation of Body Processes
44.3.02: Endocrine Glands
44.04: The Major Peripheral Endocrine Glands
44.05: Other Hormones and Their Effects
45: The Musculoskeletal System
45.01: Types of Skeletal Systems
45.02: A Closer Look at Bone
45.03: Joints
45.04: Muscle Contraction
45.05: Vertebrate Skeleton Evolution and Modes of Locomotion
46: The Digestive System
46.01: Types of Digestive Systems
46.02: The Mouth and Teeth- Food Capture and Bulk Processing
46.03: The Esophagus and Stomach- The Early Stages of Digestion
46.04: The Intestines- Breakdown Absorption and Elimination
46.05: Accessory Organ Functions
46.06: Neural and Hormonal Regulation of the Digestive Tract
46.07: Food Energy Energy Expenditure and Essential Nutrients
46.7.1: Food Energy Balance
46.08: Variations in Vertebrate Digestive Systems
46.8.01: Nutrition and Energy Production
47: The Respiratory System
47.01: Gas Exchange Across Respiratory Surfaces
47.02: Gills Cutaneous Respirate and Tracheal Systems
47.2.01: Amphibians
47.2.02: Systems of Gas Exchange
47.03: Lungs
47.3.01: Breathing
47.04: Structures Mechanisms and Control of Ventilation in Mammals
47.05: Transport of Gases in Body Fluid
48: The Circulatory System
48.01: Invertebrate Circulatory Systems
48.02: Components of Vertebrate Blood
48.03: Vertebrate Circulatory System
48.04: Cardiac Cycle Electrical Conduction ECG and Cardiac Output
48.05: Blood Pressure and Blood Vessels
49: Osmotic Regulation and the Urinary System
49.01: Osmolarity and Osmotic Balance
49.02: Nitrogenous Wastes- Ammonia Urea and Uric Acid
49.03: Osmoregulatory Organs
49.04: Evolution of the Vertebrate Kidney
49.05: The Mammalian Kidney
49.06: Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
50: The Immune System
50.01: Innate Immunity
50.02: Adaptive Immunity
50.03: Cell-Mediated Immunity
50.04: Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production
50.05: Autoimmunity and Hypersensitivity
50.06: Antibodies in Medical Treatment and Diagnosis
13.1: Practical Applications of Monoclonal and Polyclonal Antibodies
13.2: Detecting Antigen-Antibody Complexes in vitro
13.3: Agglutination Assays
13.5: Fluorescent Auto-Antibody Techniques
50.07: Pathogens that Evade the Immune System
51: The Reproductive System
51.01: Animal Reproductive Strategies
51.02: Vertebrate Fertilization and Development
51.03: Structure and Function of the Human Male Reproductive System
51.3.01: Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
51.04: Structure and Function of the Female Reproductive System
51.4.01: Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
51.4.02: Human Pregnancy and Birth
51.05: Contraception and Fertility Treatments
52: Animal Development
52.01: Fertilization
52.02: Cleavage and the Blastula Stage
52.03: Gastrulation
52.04: Organogenesis
52.05: Vertebrate Axis Pattern Formation
52.06: Human Development
53: Behavioral Biology
53.01: Natural History of Behavior
53.02: Nerve Cells Neurotransmitters Hormones and Behavior
53.2.1: Nerve Cells
53.2.2: Neurotransmitters
53.2.3: Hormones
53.2.4: Behavior and the Nervous System
53.03: Behavioral Genetics
53.3.01: Innate Behavior
53.04: Learning
53.05: The Development of Behavior
53.06: Animal Cognition
53.07: Orientation and Migratory Behavior
53.08: Animal Communication
53.8.01: Honeybee Navigation
53.8.02: Pheromones
53.09: Behavioral Ecology
53.10: Behavior and Evolution
53.11: Reproductive Strategies
53.12: Altruism
53.13: The Evolution of Group Living and Animal Societies
54: Ecology of Individuals and Populations
54.01: The Environmental Challenges
54.02: Populations Groups of Single Species in One Place
54.03: Population Demography and Dynamics
54.04: Life History and the Cost of Reproduction
54.05: Environmental Limits to Population Growth
54.06: Factors that Regulate Populations
54.07: Human Population Growth
55: Community Ecology
55.01: Biological Communities- Species Living Together
55.1.01: Biogeography
55.1.02: Community Ecology
55.02: The Ecological Niche Concept
55.2.01: Community Ecology
55.03: Predator-Prey Relationships
55.3.01: Community Ecology
55.04: The Many Types of Species Interactions
55.4.01: Community Ecology
55.05: Ecological Successions Disturbance and Species Richness
55.5.01: Community Ecology
56: Dynamics of Ecosystems
56.01: Biogeochemical Cycles
56.02: The Flow of Energy in Ecosystems
56.03: Trophic Level Interactions
6.1.1.1: Predation
6.1.1.2: Herbivory
6.1.1.3: Parasitism
6.1.1.4: Food Chains and Food Webs
56.04: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability
56.05: Island Biogeography
57: The Biosphere and Human Impacts
57.01: Ecosystem Effects of Sun Wind and Water
57.1.01: The annual solar cycle
57.1.2: Radiative Differential Heating
57.1.3: Overview Solar Energy Pressure and Wind Belts
57.1.4: Redistributing Earth's Heat Wind and Currents
57.1.5: Coriolis and Ekman Transport
57.1.6: Ocean Circulation: Surface Water and Deep Water
57.1.7: Gyres and Surface Currents
57.02: Earth's Biomes
57.03: Freshwater Habitats
57.3.01: Aquatic Biomes
57.04: Marine Habitats
57.05: Human Impacts of the Biosphere- Pollution and Resource Depletion
57.5.01: Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
57.5.02: Biogeochemical Cycles
57.5.03: Threats to Biodiversity
57.06: Human Impacts on the Biosphere- Climate Change
57.6.01: Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
58: Conservation Biology
58.01: Overview of The Biodiversity Crisis
58.02: The Value of Biodiversity
58.03: Factors Responsible for Extinction
58.3.01: Preserving Biodiversity
58.04: An Evolutionary Perspective on the Biodiversity Crisis
58.05: Approaches for Preserving Endangered Species and Ecosystems