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Organic Chemistry

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Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry studies the structure, properties and reactions of organic compounds, which contain carbon in covalent bonding. Study of structure determines their structural formula. Study of properties includes physical and chemical properties, and evaluation of chemical reactivity to understand their behavior. The study of organic reactions includes the chemical synthesis of natural products, drugs, and polymers, and study of individual organic molecules in the laboratory and theoretically.

Organic ChemistryChemistry
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Contents· 490 sections
  1. 01: Structure and Bonding
  2. 1.00: Why This Chapter
  3. 1.01: Atomic Structure - The Nucleus
  4. 1.02: Atomic Structure - Orbitals
  5. 1.03: Atomic Structure - Electron Configurations
  6. 1.04: Development of Chemical Bonding Theory
  7. 1.05: Describing Chemical Bonds - Valence Bond Theory
  8. 1.06: sp Hybrid Orbitals and the Structure of Methane
  9. 1.07: sp Hybrid Orbitals and the Structure of Ethane
  10. 1.08: sp Hybrid Orbitals and the Structure of Ethylene
  11. 1.09: sp Hybrid Orbitals and the Structure of Acetylene
  12. 1.10: Hybridization of Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus and Sulfur
  13. 1.11: Describing Chemical Bonds - Molecular Orbital Theory
  14. 1.12: Drawing Chemical Structures
  15. 1.13: Chemistry MattersOrganic Foods- Risk versus Benefit
  16. 1.14: Key Terms
  17. 1.15: Summary
  18. 1.16: Additional Problems
  19. 02: Polar Covalent Bonds Acids and Bases
  20. 2.00: Why This Chapter
  21. 2.01: Polar Covalent Bonds - Electronegativity
  22. 2.02: Polar Covalent Bonds - Dipole Moments
  23. 2.03: Formal Charges
  24. 2.04: Resonance
  25. 2.05: Rules for Resonance Forms
  26. 2.06: Drawing Resonance Forms
  27. 2.07: Acids and Bases - The Brnsted-Lowry Definition
  28. 2.08: Acid and Base Strength
  29. 2.09: Predicting Acid-Base Reactions from pKa Values
  30. 2.10: Organic Acids and Organic Bases
  31. 2.11: Acids and Bases - The Lewis Definition
  32. 2.12: Noncovalent Interactions Between Molecules
  33. 2.13: Chemistry MattersAlkaloids- From Cocaine to Dental Anesthetics
  34. 2.14: Key Terms
  35. 2.15: Summary
  36. 2.16: Additional Problems
  37. 03: Organic Compounds- Alkanes and Their Stereochemistry
  38. 3.00: Why This Chapter
  39. 3.01: Functional Groups
  40. 3.02: Alkanes and Alkane Isomers
  41. 3.03: Alkyl Groups
  42. 3.04: Naming Alkanes
  43. 3.05: Properties of Alkanes
  44. 3.06: Conformations of Ethane
  45. 3.07: Conformations of Other Alkanes
  46. 3.08: Chemistry MattersGasoline
  47. 3.09: Key Terms
  48. 3.10: Summary
  49. 3.11: Additional Problems
  50. 04: Organic Compounds - Cycloalkanes and their Stereochemistry
  51. 4.00: Why This Chapter
  52. 4.01: Naming Cycloalkanes
  53. 4.02: Cis-Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes
  54. 4.03: Stability of Cycloalkanes - Ring Strain
  55. 4.04: Conformations of Cycloalkanes
  56. 4.05: Conformations of Cyclohexane
  57. 4.06: Axial and Equatorial Bonds in Cyclohexane
  58. 4.07: Conformations of Monosubstituted Cyclohexanes
  59. 4.08: Conformations of Disubstituted Cyclohexanes
  60. 4.09: Conformations of Polycyclic Molecules
  61. 4.10: Chemistry MattersMolecular Mechanics
  62. 4.11: Key Terms
  63. 4.12: Summary
  64. 4.13: Additional Problems
  65. 05: Stereochemistry at Tetrahedral Centers
  66. 5.00: Why This Chapter
  67. 5.01: Enantiomers and the Tetrahedral Carbon
  68. 5.02: The Reason for Handedness in Molecules - Chirality
  69. 5.03: Optical Activity
  70. 5.04: Pasteur's Discovery of Enantiomers
  71. 5.05: Sequence Rules for Specifying Configuration
  72. 5.06: Diastereomers
  73. 5.07: Meso Compounds
  74. 5.08: Racemic Mixtures and the Resolution of Enantiomers
  75. 5.09: A Review of Isomerism
  76. 5.10: Chirality at Nitrogen Phosphorus and Sulfur
  77. 5.11: Prochirality
  78. 5.12: Chirality in Nature and Chiral Environments
  79. 5.13: Chemistry MattersChiral Drugs
  80. 5.14: Key Terms
  81. 5.15: Summary
  82. 5.16: Additional Problems
  83. 06: An Overview of Organic Reactions
  84. 6.00: Why This Chapter
  85. 6.01: Kinds of Organic Reactions
  86. 6.02: How Organic Reactions Occur - Mechanisms
  87. 6.03: Polar Reactions
  88. 6.04: An Example of a Polar Reaction - Addition of HBr to Ethylene
  89. 6.05: Using Curved Arrows in Polar Reaction Mechanisms
  90. 6.06: Radical Reactions
  91. 6.07: Describing a Reaction - Equilibria Rates and Energy Changes
  92. 6.08: Describing a Reaction - Bond Dissociation Energies
  93. 6.09: Describing a Reaction - Energy Diagrams and Transition States
  94. 6.10: Describing a Reaction- Intermediates
  95. 6.11: A Comparison between Biological Reactions and Laboratory Reactions
  96. 6.12: Chemistry MattersWhere Do Drugs Come From
  97. 6.13: Key Terms
  98. 6.14: Summary
  99. 6.15: Additional Problems
  100. 07: Alkenes- Structure and Reactivity
  101. 7.00: Why This Chapter
  102. 7.01: Industrial Preparation and Use of Alkenes
  103. 7.02: Calculating Degree of Unsaturation
  104. 7.03: Naming Alkenes
  105. 7.04: Cis-Trans Isomerism in Alkenes
  106. 7.05: Alkene Stereochemistry and the EZ Designation
  107. 7.06: Stability of Alkenes
  108. 7.07: Electrophilic Addition Reactions of Alkenes
  109. 7.08: Orientation of Electrophilic Additions - Markovnikov's Rule
  110. 7.09: Carbocation Structure and Stability
  111. 7.10: The Hammond Postulate
  112. 7.11: Evidence for the Mechanism of Electrophilic Additions - Carbocation Rearrangements
  113. 7.12: Chemistry MattersBioprospecting- Hunting for Natural Products
  114. 7.13: Key Terms
  115. 7.14: Summary
  116. 7.15: Additional Problems
  117. 08: Alkenes - Reactions and Synthesis
  118. 8.00: Why This Chapter
  119. 8.01: Preparation of Alkenes - A Preview of Elimination Reactions
  120. 8.02: Halogenation of Alkenes - Addition of X
  121. 8.03: Halohydrins from Alkenes - Addition of HO-X
  122. 8.04: Hydration of Alkenes - Addition of HO by Oxymercuration
  123. 8.05: Hydration of Alkenes - Addition of HO by Hydroboration
  124. 8.06: Reduction of Alkenes - Hydrogenation
  125. 8.07: Oxidation of Alkenes - Epoxidation and Hydroxylation
  126. 8.08: Oxidation of Alkenes - Cleavage to Carbonyl Compounds
  127. 8.09: Addition of Carbenes to Alkenes - Cyclopropane Synthesis
  128. 8.10: Radical Additions to Alkenes - Chain-Growth Polymers
  129. 8.11: Biological Additions of Radicals to Alkenes
  130. 8.12: Stereochemistry of Reactions - Addition of HO to an Achiral Alkene
  131. 8.13: Stereochemistry of Reactions - Addition of HO to a Chiral Alkene
  132. 8.14: Chemistry MattersTerpenes- Naturally Occurring Alkenes
  133. 8.15: Key Terms
  134. 8.16: Summary
  135. 8.17: Summary of Reactions
  136. 09: Alkynes - An Introduction to Organic Synthesis
  137. 9.00: Why This Chapter
  138. 9.01: Naming Alkynes
  139. 9.02: Preparation of Alkynes - Elimination Reactions of Dihalides
  140. 9.03: Reactions of Alkynes - Addition of HX and X
  141. 9.04: Hydration of Alkynes
  142. 9.05: Reduction of Alkynes
  143. 9.06: Oxidative Cleavage of Alkynes
  144. 9.07: Alkyne Acidity - Formation of Acetylide Anions
  145. 9.08: Alkylation of Acetylide Anions
  146. 9.09: An Introduction to Organic Synthesis
  147. 9.10: Chemistry MattersThe Art of Organic Synthesis
  148. 9.11: Key Terms
  149. 9.12: Summary
  150. 9.13: Summary of Reactions
  151. 10: Organohalides
  152. 10.00: Why This Chapter
  153. 10.01: Names and Properties of Alkyl Halides
  154. 10.02: Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alkanes - Radical Halogenation
  155. 10.03: Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alkenes - Allylic Bromination
  156. 10.04: Stability of the Allyl Radical - Resonance Revisited
  157. 10.05: Preparing Alkyl Halides from Alcohols
  158. 10.06: Reactions of Alkyl Halides - Grignard Reagents
  159. 10.07: Organometallic Coupling Reactions
  160. 10.08: Oxidation and Reduction in Organic Chemistry
  161. 10.09: Chemistry MattersNaturally Occurring Organohalides
  162. 10.10: Key Terms
  163. 10.11: Summary
  164. 10.12: Summary of Reactions
  165. 11: Reactions of Alkyl Halides- Nucleophilic Substitutions and Eliminations
  166. 11.00: Why This Chapter
  167. 11.01: The Discovery of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
  168. 11.02: The SN2 Reaction
  169. 11.03: Characteristics of the SN2 Reaction
  170. 11.4: The (S N1) Reaction
  171. 11.05: Characteristics of the SN1 Reaction
  172. 11.06: Biological Substitution Reactions
  173. 11.07: Elimination Reactions- Zaitsev's Rule
  174. 11.08: The E2 Reaction and the Deuterium Isotope Effect
  175. 11.09: The E2 Reaction and Cyclohexane Conformation
  176. 11.10: The E1 and E1cB Reactions
  177. 11.11: Biological Elimination Reactions
  178. 11.12: A Summary of Reactivity - SN1 SN2 E1 E1cB and E2
  179. 11.13: Chemistry MattersGreen Chemistry
  180. 11.14: Key Terms
  181. 11.15: Summary
  182. 11.16: Summary of Reactions
  183. 12: Structure Determination - Mass Spectrometry and Infrared Spectroscopy
  184. 12.00: Why This Chapter
  185. 12.01: Mass Spectrometry of Small Molecules - Magnetic-Sector Instruments
  186. 12.02: Interpreting Mass Spectra
  187. 12.03: Mass Spectrometry of Some Common Functional Groups
  188. 12.04: Mass Spectrometry in Biological - Time-of-flight (TOF) Instruments
  189. 12.05: Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
  190. 12.06: Infrared Spectroscopy
  191. 12.07: Interpreting Infrared Spectra
  192. 12.08: Infrared Spectra of Some Common Functional Groups
  193. 12.09: Chemistry MattersX-Ray Crystallography
  194. 12.10: Key Terms
  195. 12.11: Summary
  196. 13: Structure Determination - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
  197. 13.00: Why This Chapter
  198. 13.01: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
  199. 13.02: The Nature of NMR Absorptions
  200. 13.03: Chemical Shifts
  201. 13.04: Chemical Shifts in H NMR Spectroscopy
  202. 13.05: Integration of H NMR Absorptions- Proton Counting
  203. 13.06: Spin-Spin Splitting in H NMR Spectra
  204. 13.07: H NMR Spectroscopy and Proton Equivalence
  205. 13.08: More Complex Spin-Spin Splitting Patterns
  206. 13.09: Uses of H NMR Spectroscopy
  207. 13.10: C NMR Spectroscopy - Signal Averaging and FT-NMR
  208. 13.11: Characteristics of C NMR Spectroscopy
  209. 13.12: DEPT C NMR Spectroscopy
  210. 13.13: Uses of C NMR Spectroscopy
  211. 13.14: Chemistry MattersMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
  212. 13.15: Key Terms
  213. 13.16: Summary
  214. 14: Conjugated Compounds and Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
  215. 14.00: Why This Chapter
  216. 14.01: Stability of Conjugated Dienes- Molecular Orbital Theory
  217. 14.02: Electrophilic Additions to Conjugated Dienes- Allylic Carbocations
  218. 14.03: Kinetic vs. Thermodynamic Control of Reactions
  219. 14.04: The Diels-Alder Cycloaddition Reaction
  220. 14.05: Characteristics of the Diels-Alder Reaction
  221. 14.06: Diene Polymers- Natural and Synthetic Rubbers
  222. 14.07: Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
  223. 14.08: Interpreting Ultraviolet Spectra- The Effect of Conjugation
  224. 14.09: Conjugation Color and the Chemistry of Vision
  225. 14.10: Chemistry MattersPhotolithography
  226. 14.11: Key Terms
  227. 14.12: Summary
  228. 14.13: Summary of Reactions
  229. 15: Benzene and Aromaticity
  230. 15.00: Why This Chapter
  231. 15.01: Naming Aromatic Compounds
  232. 15.02: Structure and Stability of Benzene
  233. 15.03: Aromaticity and the Huckel 4n 2 Rule
  234. 15.04: Aromatic Ions
  235. 15.05: Aromatic Heterocycles - Pyridine and Pyrrole
  236. 15.06: Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds
  237. 15.07: Spectroscopy of Aromatic Compounds
  238. 15.08: Chemistry MattersAspirin NSAIDs and COX-2 Inhibitors
  239. 15.09: Key Terms
  240. 15.10: Summary
  241. 16: Chemistry of Benzene - Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
  242. 16.00: Why This Chapter
  243. 16.01: Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions - Bromination
  244. 16.02: Other Aromatic Substitutions
  245. 16.03: Alkylation and Acylation of Aromatic Rings - The Friedel-Crafts Reaction
  246. 16.04: Substituent Effects in Electrophilic Substitutions
  247. 16.05: Trisubstituted Benzenes- Additivity of Effects
  248. 16.06: Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution
  249. 16.07: Benzyne
  250. 16.08: Oxidation of Aromatic Compounds
  251. 16.09: Reduction of Aromatic Compounds
  252. 16.10: Synthesis of Polysubstituted Benzenes
  253. 16.11: Chemistry MattersCombinatorial Chemistry
  254. 16.12: Key Terms
  255. 16.13: Summary
  256. 16.14: Summary of Reactions
  257. 17: Alcohols and Phenols
  258. 17.00: Why This Chapter
  259. 17.01: Naming Alcohols and Phenols
  260. 17.02: Properties of Alcohols and Phenols
  261. 17.03: Preparation of Alcohols- A Review
  262. 17.04: Alcohols from Carbonyl Compounds - Reduction
  263. 17.05: Alcohols from Carbonyl Compounds - Grignard Reagents
  264. 17.06: Reactions of Alcohols
  265. 17.07: Oxidation of Alcohols
  266. 17.08: Protection of Alcohols
  267. 17.09: Phenols and Their Uses
  268. 17.10: Reactions of Phenols
  269. 17.11: Spectroscopy of Alcohols and Phenols
  270. 17.12: Chemistry MattersEthanol- Chemical Drug and Poison
  271. 17.13: Key Terms
  272. 17.14: Summary
  273. 17.15: Summary of Reactions
  274. 18: Ethers and Epoxides Thiols and Sulfides
  275. 18.00: Why This Chapter
  276. 18.01: Names and Properties of Ethers
  277. 18.02: Preparing Ethers
  278. 18.03: Reactions of Ethers- Acidic Cleavage
  279. 18.04: Cyclic Ethers - Epoxides
  280. 18.05: Reactions of Epoxides- Ring-opening
  281. 18.06: Crown Ethers
  282. 18.07: Thiols and Sulfides
  283. 18.08: Spectroscopy of Ethers
  284. 18.09: Chemistry MattersEpoxy Resins and Adhesives
  285. 18.10: Key Terms
  286. 18.11: Summary
  287. 18.12: Summary of Reactions
  288. 18.14: Preview of Carbonyl Chemistry
  289. 19: Aldehydes and Ketones- Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
  290. 19.00: Why This Chapter
  291. 19.01: Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
  292. 19.02: Preparing Aldehydes and Ketones
  293. 19.03: Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones
  294. 19.04: Nucleophilic Addition Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
  295. 19.05: Nucleophilic Addition of Water- Hydration
  296. 19.06: Nucleophilic Addition of HCN- Cyanohydrin Formation
  297. 19.07: Nucleophilic Addition of Hydride and Grignard Reagents- Alcohol Formation
  298. 19.08: Nucleophilic Addition of Amines- Imine and Enamine Formation
  299. 19.09: Nucleophilic Addition of Hydrazine - The Wolff-Kishner Reaction
  300. 19.10: Nucleophilic Addition of Alcohols - Acetal Formation
  301. 19.11: Nucleophilic Addition of Phosphorus Ylides- The Wittig Reaction
  302. 19.12: Biological Reductions
  303. 19.13: Conjugate Nucleophilic Addition to Unsaturated Aldehydes and Ketones
  304. 19.14: Spectroscopy of Aldehydes and Ketones
  305. 19.15: Chemistry MattersEnantioselective Synthesis
  306. 19.16: Key Terms
  307. 19.17: Summary
  308. 19.18: Summary of Reactions
  309. 20: Carboxylic Acids and Nitriles
  310. 20.00: Why This Chapter
  311. 20.01: Naming Carboxylic Acids and Nitriles
  312. 20.02: Structure and Properties of Carboxylic Acids
  313. 20.03: Biological Acids and the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
  314. 20.04: Substituent Effects on Acidity
  315. 20.05: Preparing Carboxylic Acids
  316. 20.06: Reactions of Carboxylic Acids - An Overview
  317. 20.07: Chemistry of Nitriles
  318. 20.08: Spectroscopy of Carboxylic Acids and Nitriles
  319. 20.09: Chemistry MattersVitamin C
  320. 20.10: Key Terms
  321. 20.11: Summary
  322. 20.12: Summary of Reactions
  323. 21: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives- Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions
  324. 21.00: Why This Chapter
  325. 21.01: Naming Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
  326. 21.02: Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions
  327. 21.03: Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
  328. 21.04: Chemistry of Acid Halides
  329. 21.05: Chemistry of Acid Anhydrides
  330. 21.06: Chemistry of Esters
  331. 21.07: Chemistry of Amides
  332. 21.08: Chemistry of Thioesters and Acyl Phosphates - Biological Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
  333. 21.09: Polyamides and Polyesters - Step-Growth Polymers
  334. 21.10: Spectroscopy of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
  335. 21.11: Chemistry Matters-Lactam Antibiotics
  336. 21.12: Key Terms
  337. 21.13: Summary
  338. 21.14: Summary of Reactions
  339. 22: Carbonyl Alpha-Substitution Reactions
  340. 22.00: Why This Chapter
  341. 22.01: Keto-Enol Tautomerism
  342. 22.02: Reactivity of Enols- -Substitution Reactions
  343. 22.03: Alpha Halogenation of Aldehydes and Ketones
  344. 22.04: Alpha Bromination of Carboxylic Acids
  345. 22.05: Acidity of Alpha Hydrogen Atoms- Enolate Ion Formation
  346. 22.06: Reactivity of Enolate Ions
  347. 22.07: Alkylation of Enolate Ions
  348. 22.08: Chemistry MattersBarbiturates
  349. 22.09: Key Terms
  350. 22.10: Summary
  351. 22.11: Summary of Reactions
  352. 23: Carbonyl Condensation Reactions
  353. 23.00: Why This Chapter
  354. 23.01: Carbonyl Condensations - The Aldol Reaction
  355. 23.02: Carbonyl Condensations versus Alpha Substitutions
  356. 23.03: Dehydration of Aldol Products - Synthesis of Enones
  357. 23.04: Using Aldol Reactions in Synthesis
  358. 23.05: Mixed Aldol Reactions
  359. 23.06: Intramolecular Aldol Reactions
  360. 23.07: The Claisen Condensation Reaction
  361. 23.08: Mixed Claisen Condensations
  362. 23.09: Intramolecular Claisen Condensations - The Dieckmann Cyclization
  363. 23.10: Conjugate Carbonyl Additions - The Michael Reaction
  364. 23.11: Carbonyl Condensations with Enamines - The Stork Enamine Reaction
  365. 23.12: The Robinson Annulation Reaction
  366. 23.13: Some Biological Carbonyl Condensation Reactions
  367. 23.14: Chemistry MattersA Prologue to Metabolism
  368. 23.15: Key Terms
  369. 23.16: Summary
  370. 23.17: Summary of Reactions
  371. 24: Amines and Heterocycles
  372. 24.00: Why This Chapter
  373. 24.01: Naming Amines
  374. 24.02: Structure and Properties of Amines
  375. 24.03: Basicity of Amines
  376. 24.04: Basicity of Arylamines
  377. 24.05: Biological Amines and the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
  378. 24.06: Synthesis of Amines
  379. 24.07: Reactions of Amines
  380. 24.08: Reactions of Arylamines
  381. 24.09: Heterocyclic Amines
  382. 24.10: Spectroscopy of Amines
  383. 24.11: Chemistry MattersGreen Chemistry II- Ionic Liquids
  384. 24.12: Key Terms
  385. 24.13: Summary
  386. 24.14: Summary of Reactions
  387. 25: Biomolecules - Carbohydrates
  388. 25.00: Why This Chapter
  389. 25.01: Classification of Carbohydrates
  390. 25.02: Representing Carbohydrate Stereochemistry- Fischer Projections
  391. 25.03: D L Sugars
  392. 25.04: Configurations of Aldoses
  393. 25.05: Cyclic Structures of Monosaccharides - Anomers
  394. 25.06: Reactions of Monosaccharides
  395. 25.07: The Eight Essential Monosaccharides
  396. 25.08: Disaccharides
  397. 25.09: Polysaccharides and Their Synthesis
  398. 25.10: Some Other Important Carbohydrates
  399. 25.11: Chemistry MattersSweetness
  400. 25.12: Key Terms
  401. 25.13: Summary
  402. 25.14: Summary of Reactions
  403. 26: Biomolecules- Amino Acids Peptides and Proteins
  404. 26.00: Why This Chapter
  405. 26.01: Structures of Amino Acids
  406. 26.02: Amino Acids the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation and Isoelectric Points
  407. 26.03: Synthesis of Amino Acids
  408. 26.04: Peptides and Proteins
  409. 26.05: Amino Acid Analysis of Peptides
  410. 26.06: Peptide Sequencing- The Edman Degradation
  411. 26.07: Peptide Synthesis
  412. 26.08: Automated Peptide Synthesis- The Merrifield Solid-Phase Method
  413. 26.09: Protein Structure
  414. 26.10: Enzymes and Coenzymes
  415. 26.11: How do Enzymes Work Citrate Synthase
  416. 26.12: Chemistry MattersThe Protein Data Bank
  417. 26.13: Key Terms
  418. 26.14: Summary
  419. 26.15: Summary of Reactions
  420. 27: Biomolecules - Lipids
  421. 27.00: Why This Chapter
  422. 27.01: Waxes Fats and Oils
  423. 27.02: Soap
  424. 27.03: Phospholipids
  425. 27.04: Prostaglandins and Other Eicosanoids
  426. 27.05: Terpenoids
  427. 27.06: Steroids
  428. 27.07: Biosynthesis of Steroids
  429. 27.08: Chemistry MattersSaturated Fats Cholesterol and Heart Disease
  430. 27.09: Key Terms
  431. 27.10: Summary
  432. 27.11: Additional Problems
  433. 28: Biomolecules - Nucleic Acids
  434. 28.00: Why This Chapter
  435. 28.01: Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
  436. 28.02: Base Pairing in DNA
  437. 28.03: Replication of DNA
  438. 28.04: Transcription of DNA
  439. 28.05: Translation of RNA - Protein Biosynthesis
  440. 28.06: DNA Sequencing
  441. 28.07: DNA Synthesis
  442. 28.08: The Polymerase Chain Reaction
  443. 28.09: Chemistry MattersDNA Fingerprinting
  444. 28.10: Key Terms
  445. 28.11: Summary
  446. 29: The Organic Chemistry of Metabolic Pathways
  447. 29.00: Why This Chapter
  448. 29.01: An Overview of Metabolism and Biochemical Energy
  449. 29.02: Catabolism of Triacylglycerols - The Fate of Glycerol
  450. 29.03: Catabolism of Triacylglycerols - -Oxidation
  451. 29.04: Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids
  452. 29.05: Catabolism of Carbohydrates- Glycolysis
  453. 29.06: Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
  454. 29.07: The Citric Acid Cycle
  455. 29.08: Carbohydrate Biosynthesis- Gluconeogenesis
  456. 29.09: Catabolism of Proteins- Deamination
  457. 29.10: Some Conclusions about Biological Chemistry
  458. 29.11: Chemistry MattersStatin Drugs
  459. 29.12: Key Terms
  460. 29.13: Summary
  461. 30: Orbitals and Organic Chemistry - Pericyclic Reactions
  462. 30.00: Why This Chapter
  463. 30.01: Molecular Orbitals of Conjugated Pi Systems
  464. 30.02: Electrocyclic Reactions
  465. 30.03: Stereochemistry of Thermal Electrocyclic Reactions
  466. 30.04: Photochemical Electrocyclic Reactions
  467. 30.05: Cycloaddition Reactions
  468. 30.06: Stereochemistry of Cycloadditions
  469. 30.07: Sigmatropic Rearrangements
  470. 30.08: Some Examples of Sigmatropic Rearrangements
  471. 30.09: A Summary of Rules for Pericyclic Reactions
  472. 30.10: Chemistry MattersVitamin D the Sunshine Vitamin
  473. 30.11: Key Terms
  474. 30.12: Summary
  475. 31: Synthetic Polymers
  476. 31.00: Why This Chapter
  477. 31.01: Chain-Growth Polymers
  478. 31.02: Stereochemistry of Polymerization- Ziegler-Natta Catalysts
  479. 31.03: Copolymers
  480. 31.04: Step-Growth Polymers
  481. 31.05: Olefin Metathesis Polymerization
  482. 31.06: Intramolecular Olefin Metathesis
  483. 31.07: Polymer Structure and Physical Properties
  484. 31.08: Chemistry MattersDegradable Polymers
  485. 31.09: Key Terms
  486. 31.10: Summary
  487. 32: Appendix
  488. 32.00: Appendix A - Nomenclature of Polyfunctional Organic Compounds
  489. 32.01: Appendix B - Acidity Constants for Some Organic Compounds
  490. 32.03: Appendix D - Periodic Table