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General Biology

Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research.

Introductory and General Biology Biology

Tác giả: OpenStax
Nhà xuất bản: LibreTexts
Nguồn: LibreTexts
Giấy phép: CC BY
Ngôn ngữ: EN
Danh mục: Khoa học cơ bản

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Mục lục· 355 mục

1: The Chemistry of Life
1: The Study of Life
1.0: Prelude to The Study of Life
1.1: The Science of Biology
1.2: Themes and Concepts of Biology
1.E: The Study of Life (Exercises)
2: The Chemical Foundation of Life
2.0: Prelude to The Chemical Foundation of Life
2.1: Atoms Isotopes Ions and Molecules - The Building Blocks
2.2: Water
2.3: Carbon
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3: Biological Macromolecules
3.0: Prelude to Biological Macromolecules
3.1: Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
3.2: Carbohydrates
3.3: Lipids
3.4: Proteins
3.5: Nucleic Acids
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2: The Cell
04: Cell Structure
4.0: Prelude to Cell Structure
4.1: Studying Cells
4.2: Prokaryotic Cells
4.3: Eukaryotic Cells
4.4: The Endomembrane System and Proteins
4.5: The Cytoskeleton
4.6: Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities
4.E: Cell Structure (Exercises)
5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
5.0: Prelude to Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
5.1: Components and Structure
5.2: Passive Transport
5.3: Active Transport
5.4: Bulk Transport
5.E: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes (Exercises)
06: Metabolism
6.0: Prelude to Metabolism
6.1: Energy and Metabolism
6.2: Potential Kinetic Free and Activation Energy
6.3: The Laws of Thermodynamics
6.4: ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
6.5: Enzymes
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07: Cellular Respiration
7.0: Prelude to Cellular Respiration
7.1: Energy in Living Systems
7.2: Glycolysis
7.3: Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
7.4: Oxidative Phosphorylation
7.5: Metabolism without Oxygen
7.6: Connections of Carbohydrate Protein and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
7.7: Regulation of Cellular Respiration
7.E: Cellular Respiration (Exercises)
08: Photosynthesis
8.0: Prelude to Photosynthesis
8.1: Overview of Photosynthesis
8.2: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
8.3: Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules
8.E: Photosynthesis (Exercises)
09: Cell Communication
9.0: Prelude to Cell Communication
9.1: Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
9.2: Propagation of the Signal
9.3: Response to the Signal
9.4: Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms
9.E: Cell Communication (Exercises)
10: Cell Reproduction
10.0: Introduction
10.1: Cell Division
10.2: The Cell Cycle
10.3: Control of the Cell Cycle
10.4: Cancer and the Cell Cycle
10.5: Prokaryotic Cell Division
10.E: Cell Reproduction (Exercises)
3: Genetics
11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
11.0: Prelude to Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
11.1: The Process of Meiosis
11.2: Sexual Reproduction
11.E: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction (Exercises)
12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
12.0: Prelude to Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
12.1: Mendels Experiments and the Laws of Probability
12.2: Characteristics and Traits
12.3: Laws of Inheritance
12.E: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity (Exercises)
13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance
13.0: Prelude to Modern Understandings of Inheritance
13.1: Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage
13.2: Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
13.E: Modern Understandings of Inheritance (Exercises)
14: DNA Structure and Function
14.0: Prelude to DNA Structure and Function
14.1: Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
14.2: DNA Structure and Sequencing
14.3: Basics of DNA Replication
14.4: DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
14.5: DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
14.6: DNA Repair
14.E: DNA Structure and Function (Exercises)
15: Genes and Proteins
15.0: Prelude to Genes and Proteins
15.1: The Genetic Code
15.2: Prokaryotic Transcription
15.3: Eukaryotic Transcription
15.4: RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
15.5: Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
15.E: Genes and Proteins (Exercises)
16: Gene Expression
16.0: Prelude to Gene Expression
16.1: Regulation of Gene Expression
16.2: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
16.3: Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
16.4: Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation
16.5: Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
16.6: Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
16.7: Cancer and Gene Regulation
16.E: Gene Expression (Exercises)
17: Biotechnology and Genomics
17.0: Introduction
17.1: Biotechnology
17.2: Mapping Genomes
17.3: Whole-Genome Sequencing
17.4: Applying Genomics
17.5: Genomics and Proteomics
17.E: Biotechnology and Genomics (Exercises)
4: Evolutionary Processes
18: Evolution and the Origin of Species
18.0: Evolution
18.1: Understanding Evolution
18.2: Formation of New Species
18.3: Reconnection and Rates of Speciation
18.E: Evolution and the Origin of Species (Exercises)
19: The Evolution of Populations
19.0: Introduction
19.1: Population Evolution
19.2: Population Genetics
19.3: Adaptive Evolution
19.E: The Evolution of Populations (Exercises)
20: Phylogenies and the History of Life
20.0: Introduction
20.1: Organizing Life on Earth
20.2: Determining Evolutionary Relationships
20.3: Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
20.E: Phylogenies and the History of Life (Exercises)
5: Biological Diversity
21: Viruses
21.0: Prelude to Viruses
21.1: Viral Evolution Morphology and Classification
21.2: Virus Infections and Hosts
21.3: Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
21.4: Other Acellular Entities - Prions and Viroids
21.E: Viruses (Exercises)
22: Prokaryotes - Bacteria and Archaea
22.0: Prelude to Prokaryotes
22.1: Prokaryotic Diversity
22.2: Structure of Prokaryotes
22.3: Prokaryotic Metabolism
22.4: Bacterial Diseases in Humans
22.5: Beneficial Prokaryotes
22.E: Prokaryotes - Bacteria and Archaea (Exercises)
23: Protists
23.0: Prelude to Protists
23.1: Eukaryotic Origins
23.2: Characteristics of Protists
23.3: Groups of Protists
23.4: Ecology of Protists
23.E: Protists (Exercises)
24: Fungi
24.0: Prelude to Fungi
24.1: Characteristics of Fungi
24.2: Classifications of Fungi
24.3: Ecology of Fungi
24.4: Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
24.5: Importance of Fungi in Human Life
24.E: Fungi (Exercises)
25: Seedless Plants
25.0: Prelude to Seedless Plants
25.1: Early Plant Life
25.2: Green Algae - Precursors of Land Plants
25.3: Bryophytes
25.4: Seedless Vascular Plants
25.E: Seedless Plants (Exercises)
26: Seed Plants
26.0: Prelude to Seed Plants
26.1: Evolution of Seed Plants
26.2: Gymnosperms
26.3: Angiosperms
26.4: The Role of Seed Plants
26.E: Seed Plants (Exercises)
27: Introduction to Animal Diversity
27.0: Introduction
27.1: Features of the Animal Kingdom
27.2: Features Used to Classify Animals
27.3: Animal Phylogeny
27.4: The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom
27.E: Introduction to Animal Diversity (Exercises)
28: Invertebrates
28.0: Prelude to Invertebrates
28.1: Phylum Porifera
28.2: Phylum Cnidaria
28.3: Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
28.4: Superphylum Ecdysozoa
28.5: Superphylum Deuterostomia
28.E: Invertebrates (Exercises)
29: Vertebrates
29.0: Prelude to Vertebrates
29.1: Chordates
29.2: Fishes
29.3: Amphibians
29.4: Reptiles
29.5: Birds
29.6: Mammals
29.7: The Evolution of Primates
29.E: Vertebrates (Exercises)
6: Plant Structure and Function
30: Plant Form and Physiology
30.0: Prelude to Plant Form and Physiology
30.1: The Plant Body
30.2: Stems
30.3: Roots
30.4: Leaves
30.5: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
30.6: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
30.E: Plant Form and Physiology (Exercises)
31: Soil and Plant Nutrition
31.0: Prelude to Soil and Plant Nutrition
31.1: Nutritional Requirements of Plants
31.2: The Soil
31.3: Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
31.E: Soil and Plant Nutrition (Exercises)
32: Plant Reproduction
32.0: Prelude to Plant Reproduction
32.1: Reproductive Development and Structure
32.2: Pollination and Fertilization
32.3: Asexual Reproduction
32.E: Plant Reproduction (Exercises)
7: Animal Structure and Function
33: The Animal Body - Basic Form and Function
33.0: Prelude to The Animal Body
33.1: Animal Form and Function
33.2: Animal Primary Tissues
33.3: Homeostasis
33.E: The Animal Body - Basic Form and Function (Exercises)
34: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
34.0: Prelude to Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
34.1: Digestive Systems
34.2: Nutrition and Energy Production
34.3: Digestive System Processes
34.4: Digestive System Regulation
34.E: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System (Exercises)
35: The Nervous System
35.0: Prelude to the Nervous System
35.1: Neurons and Glial Cells
35.2: How Neurons Communicate
35.3: The Central Nervous System
35.4: The Peripheral Nervous System
35.5: Nervous System Disorders
35.E: The Nervous System (Exercises)
36: Sensory Systems
36.0: Introduction
36.1: Sensory Processes
36.2: Somatosensation
36.3: Taste and Smell
36.4: Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
36.5: Vision
36.E: Sensory Systems (Exercises)
37: The Endocrine System
37.0: Introduction
37.1: Types of Hormones
37.2: How Hormones Work
37.3: Regulation of Body Processes
37.4: Regulation of Hormone Production
37.5: Endocrine Glands
37.E: The Endocrine System (Exercises)
38: The Musculoskeletal System
38.0: Prelude to the Musculoskeletal System
38.1: Types of Skeletal Systems
38.2: Bone
38.3: Joints and Skeletal Movement
38.4: Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
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39: The Respiratory System
39.0: Prelude to the Respiratory System
39.1: Systems of Gas Exchange
39.2: Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
39.3: Breathing
39.4: Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
39.E: The Respiratory System (Exercises)
40: The Circulatory System
40.0: Prelude to the Circulatory System
40.1: Overview of the Circulatory System
40.2: Components of the Blood
40.3: Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
40.4: Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
40.E: The Circulatory System (Exercises)
41: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
41.0: Prelude to Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
41.1: Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance
41.2: The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
41.3: Excretion Systems
41.4: Nitrogenous Wastes
41.5: Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
41.E: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion (Exercises)
42: The Immune System
42.0: Prelude to the Immune System
42.1: Innate Immune Response
42.2: Adaptive Immune Response
42.3: Antibodies
42.4: Disruptions in the Immune System
42.E: The Immune System (Exercises)
43: Animal Reproduction and Development
43.0: Prelude to Animal Reproduction and Development
43.1: Reproduction Methods
43.2: Fertilization
43.3: Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
43.4: Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
43.5: Human Pregnancy and Birth
43.6: Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
43.7: Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
43.E: Animal Reproduction and Development (Exercises)
8: Ecology
44: Ecology and the Biosphere
44.0: Prelude to Ecology and the Biosphere
44.1: The Scope of Ecology
44.2: Biogeography
44.3: Terrestrial Biomes
44.4: Aquatic Biomes
44.5: Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
44.E: Ecology and the Biosphere (Exercises)
45: Population and Community Ecology
45.0: Prelude to Population and Community Ecology
45.1: Population Demography
45.2: Life Histories and Natural Selection
45.3: Environmental Limits to Population Growth
45.4: Population Dynamics and Regulation
45.5: Human Population Growth
45.6: Community Ecology
45.7: Behavioral Biology - Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
45.E: Population and Community Ecology (Exercises)
46: Ecosystems
46.0: Prelude to Ecosystems
46.1: Ecology of Ecosystems
46.2: Energy Flow through Ecosystems
46.3: Biogeochemical Cycles
46.E: Ecosystems (Exercises)
47: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
47.0: Prelude to Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
47.1: The Biodiversity Crisis
47.2: The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
47.3: Threats to Biodiversity
47.4: Preserving Biodiversity
47.E: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity (Exercises)