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Critical Reasoning: A User's Manual

Teaching critical reasoning is difficult. So is learning to reason more carefully and accurately. The greatest challenge is teaching (and learning) skills in such a way that students can spontaneously apply them outside the classroom once the course is over (teaching people to apply skills in the classroom can be hard enough, but clearly isn’t a worthwhile goal in itself).

Philosophy Humanities

Tác giả: Jason Southworth & Chris Swoyer
Nhà xuất bản: Fort Hays State & University University of Oklahoma
Nguồn: LibreTexts
Giấy phép: CC BY-NC
Ngôn ngữ: EN

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Mục lục· 266 mục

01: Basic Concepts of Critical Thinking
1.01: Basic Concepts
1.02: A Role for Reason
1.03: Improving Reasoning
1.04: Chapter Exercises
02: Arguments
2.01: Arguments
2.02: Uses of Arguments
2.03: Identifying Arguments in their Natural Habitat
2.04: Putting Arguments into Standard Form
2.05: Deductive Validity
2.06: Method of Conterexample
2.07: Inductive Arguments
2.08: Evaluating Arguments
2.09: Chapter Exercises
03: Conditionals and Conditional Arguments
3.01: Conditionals and their Parts
3.02: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
3.03: Conditional Arguments
3.04: Chapter Exercises
04: Perception- Expectation and Inference
4.01: Perception and Reasoning
4.02: Perception is Selective
4.03: Theres More to Seeing than Meets the Eye
4.04: Going Beyond the Information Given
4.05: Perception and Inference
4.06: What Ambiguous Figures Show- Expectations and Set
4.07: Perceptual Set- The Role of Expectations
4.08: Theres More to Hearing Feeling...
4.09: Seeing What We Want to See
4.10: Chapter Exercises
05: Evaluating Sources of Information
5.01: Other People as Sources of Information
5.02: Expertise
5.03: Evaluating Claims to Expertise
5.04: Who Do We Listen To
5.05: Evaluating Testimony in General
5.06: Safeguards
5.07: Chapter Exercises
06: The Internet - Finding and Evaluating Information Online
6.01: The Internet
6.02: Search Engines
6.03: Looking at Search Results
6.04: Popular but Troublesome Internet Resources
6.05: Some Resources Worth Your Time
6.06: Trolling
6.07: Chapter Exercises
07: Memory and Reasoning
7.01: Memory and Reasoning
7.02: Stages in Memory
7.03: Encoding
7.04: Storage
7.05: Retrieval
7.06: Summary- Inference and Influences on Memory
7.07: Chapter Exercises
08: Memory II- Pitfalls and Remedies
8.01: Misattribution of Source
8.02: The Misinformation Effect
8.03: Confidence and Accuracy
8.04: False Memories
8.05: Belief Perseveration
8.06: Hindsight Bias
8.07: Inert Knowledge
8.08: Eyewitness Testimony
8.09: Primacy and Recency Effects
8.10: Collective Memory
8.11: Remedies
8.12: Chapter Summary
8.13: Chapter Exercises
09: Emotions and Reasoning
9.01: The Pervasiveness of Emotions
9.02: Stress
9.03: Legitimate Appeals to Emotion
9.04: Illegitimate Appeals- The Exploitation of Emotion
9.05: Self-serving Biases
9.06: Chapter Exercises
10: Relevance Irrelevance and Fallacies
10.01: Relevance
10.02: Fallacy of Irrelevant Reasons
10.03: Arguments Against the Person
10.04: The Straw Man Fallacy
10.05: Appeal to Ignorance
10.06: Suppressed (or Neglected) Evidence
10.07: Chapter Exercises
11: Fallacies- Common Ways of Reasoning Badly
11.01: Begging the Question
11.02: The Either Or Fallacy
11.03: Drawing the Line
11.04: Inconsistency
11.05: Chapter Exercises
11.06: Summary of Fallacies
12: Induction in the Real World
12.01: Life is Uncertain
12.02: Inductively Strong Arguments
12.03: Chapter Exercises
13: Rules for Calculating Probabilities
13.01: Intuitive Illustrations
13.02: Probabilities are Numbers
13.03: Rules for Calculating Probabilities
13.04: More Rules for Calculating Probabilities
13.05: Chapter Exercises
13.06: Appendix- Working with Fractions
14: Conditional Probabilities
14.01: Conditional Probabilities
14.02: Analyzing Probability Problems
14.03: Odds and Ends
14.04: Chapter Exercises
14.05: Summary of Rules for Calculating Probabilities
15: Samples and Correlations
15.01: Descriptive Statistics
15.02: Inferences from Samples to Populations
15.03: Correlation
15.04: Real vs. Illusory Correlations
15.05: Chapter Exercises
16: Applications and Pitfalls
16.01: What do the Numbers Mean
16.02: Expected Value
16.03: The Gamblers Fallacy
16.04: The Conjunction Fallacy
16.05: Doing Better by Using Frequencies
16.06: Why Things Go Wrong
16.07: Regression to the Mean
16.08: Coincidence
16.09: Chapter Exercises
17: Heuristics and Biases
17.01: Inferential Heuristics
17.02: The Availability Heuristic
17.03: The Representativeness Heuristic
17.04: Base-Rates
17.05: Anchoring and Adjustment
17.06: Chapter Exercises
18: More Biases Pitfalls and Traps
18.01: Framing Effects
18.02: Psychological Accounting
18.03: Magic Numbers
18.04: Sunk Costs
18.05: Confirmation Bias
18.06: Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
18.07: The Validity Effect and Mere Exposure
18.08: The Just World Hypothesis
18.09: Effect Sizes
18.10: The Contrast Effect
18.11: How Goodor Badare We
18.12: Chapter Exercises
19: Cognitive Dissonance- Psychological Inconsistency
19.01: Two Striking Examples
19.02: Cognitive Dissonance
19.03: Insufficient Justification and Induced Compliance
19.04: Effort Justification and Dissonance
19.05: Post-Decisional Dissonance
19.06: Belief Disconfirmation and Dissonance
19.07: Dissonance Reduction and Bad Reasoning
19.08: Chapter Exercises
20: Critical Reasoning and the Scientific Method
20.01: Science
20.02: Formulating Hypotheses
20.03: Making Predictions
20.04: Testing Hypotheses
20.05: Getting Data and Drawing Inferences
20.06: Assessing Correlation and Claiming Causation
20.07: Giving Explanations
20.08: Chapter Exercises
21: Risk
21.01: Life is Full of Risks
21.02: Describing Risks
21.03: Health Risks
21.04: Crime Risks
21.05: Other Risks
21.06: Cognitive Biases and the Misperception of Risk
21.07: Psychological Influences on Risk Assessment
21.08: Chapter Exercises
22: Social Influences on Thinking
22.01: The Social World
22.02: Persuasion- Rational Argument vs. Manipulation
22.03: Social Influences on Cognition
22.04: Socialization
22.05: The Mere Presence of Others
22.06: Professional Persuaders
22.07: Conformity
22.08: Obedience
22.09: What Could Explain Such Behavior
22.10: Responsibility
22.11: Safeguards
22.12: Chapter Exercises
23: The Power of the Situation
23.01: Case Studies
23.02: The Fundamental Attribution Error
23.03: Actor-Observer Differences
23.04: Special Cases
23.05: Chapter Exercises
24: Reasoning in Groups
24.01: Group Reasoning
24.02: Social Loafing
24.03: Group Dynamics and Setting the Agenda
24.04: Group Polarization
24.05: Group Accuracy
24.06: Groupthink
24.07: Successful Groups
24.08: Safeguards
24.09: Chapter Exercises
25: Stereotypes and Prejudices
25.01: Consequences of Prejudices and Stereotypes
25.02: Prejudice
25.03: Stereotypes
25.04: Discrimination
25.05: Features of Stereotypes
25.06: Cognitive Mechanisms
25.07: Flawed Reasoning and Prejudice
25.08: Responses
25.09: Chapter Exercises
26: Social Dilemmas
26.01: Prisoners Dilemmas
26.02: Real Life Prisoners Dilemmas
26.03: How is Cooperation Possible
26.04: Fundamental Values- Clashes and Tradeoffs
26.05: Chapter Exercises
27: Diagrammatic Reasoning- Using Pictures to Think
27.01: Using Vision to Think
27.02: Picturing Logical Structure
27.03: Picturing Probabilistic and Statistical Structure
27.04: Chapter Exercises
27.05: Appendix- Inverse Probabilities and Bayes Rule
28: Recognizing Where Cognitive Tools Apply- Cues Transfer and Habits
28.01: Good Thinking
28.02: Feedback- Learning from Experience
28.03: Recognizing the Relevance of a Cognitive Tool
28.04: Consider Alternatives
28.05: Acquiring Cognitive Skills
28.06: Chapter Exercises
29: Application to Metaphysics
29.01: Metaphysics
29.02: Gods Existence
29.03: Free Will
29.04: Personal Identity
29.05: Teleology
29.06: Essentialism
29.07: Chapter Exercises
30: Application to Epistemology
30.01: Epistemology
30.02: Skepticism
30.03: Appearance and Reality
30.04: Belief without Justification
30.05: Epistemic Injustice
30.06: Objectivity and Investigation
30.07: Chapter Exercises
31: Application to Ethics
31.01: Ethics
31.02: General Concerns
31.03: Ethics and Public Policy
31.04: Identity-Based Ethics
31.05: The Wisdom of Repugnance
31.06: Criminal Justice Reform
31.07: Parenting Ethics
31.08: Chapter Exercises
32: Formal Logic Symbolization and Negation Manipulation
32.01: Formal Logic
32.02: Symbolization
32.03: Negation Manipulation
33: Truth Tables
33.01: Truth Tables
33.02: Tautology Contradiction and Contingencies
33.03: Multiple Claims
33.04: Validity
34: Appendix
34.01: Appendix- Pretest
34.02: Appendix- Truth Table Quick Reference Guide