Nguồn ngoài

Oceanography 101

This textbook outlines the major processes and features of the world's oceans. Content starts with a review of important fundamentals of the natural and physical science related to oceanography. Following chapters focus on Earth history and evolution of life through time.

Geosciences

Tác giả: Miracosta College
Nhà xuất bản: LibreTexts
Nguồn: LibreTexts
Giấy phép: CC0 / Public domain
Ngôn ngữ: EN
Danh mục: Khoa học cơ bản

Đọc trực tuyến Tải PDF (nguồn mở)

Mục lục· 332 mục

01: Introduction to Oceanography
1.01: What is Oceanography
1.02: The World Oceans
1.03: Early Exploration of the Oceans
1.04: Essential Science Review Concepts for Oceanography
1.05: Try the Scientific Method Two Simple Exercises To Illustrate
1.06: Essential Chemistry and Physics Concepts for Oceanography
1.07: Chemical Bonds
1.08: Isotopes (and Radioactivity)
1.09: Energy
1.10: Gravity Mass and Density
1.12: Understanding Maps
1.13: Geologic Time Scale
1.14: Earth's Place in the Universe
1.15: Early Astronomers- Copernicus Galileo Kepler and Newton
1.16: Gravity
1.17: Determining the Expanse of Space
1.18: Galaxies
1.19: Earth's Place In the Observable Universe
1.20: The Big Bang Theory
1.21: Stars
1.22: The Solar System
1.23: The Sun
1.24: Sunspots Coronal Mass Ejections and the Solar Wind
1.25: Planets and Planetary Systems of the Solar System
1.26: Earth's Moon
1.27: Asteroids and Comets
1.28: The Outer Solar System
1.29: Nebular Hypothesis of the Origin of the Solar System
1.30: Evolution of Earths Layered Structure
1.32: What Are Minerals and What Is the Difference Between a Rock and a Mineral
1.33: General Classification of Solid Earth Materials
1.34: Igneous Rocks
1.35: Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
1.36: Metamorphic Rocks
1.37: The Rock Cycle
1.38: Uniformitarianism
1.39: Rock Formations
1.40: Methods For Determining the Age of Earth Materials and Features
1.41: Decay of Radioactive Isotopes Used For Absolute Dating
1.42: Radiocarbon Dating and Relative Dating
1.43: Unconformities- Gaps in the Geologic Record
1.44: Quiz Questions - Chapter 1 - Introduction to Oceanography
02: Evolution of Life Through Time
2.01: A Brief Summary of the Evolution of Life on Earth through Time
2.02: Key Developments In Understanding the Origin Of Life On Earth
2.03: Evolution
2.04: Essential Concepts of Historical Geology and Evolution
2.05: Sedimentary Sequences Preserve the Fossil Record
2.06: Ecological Succession- How Species and Ecosystem Populations Change Over Time
2.07: Precambrian Eon
2.08: The Paleozoic Era
2.09: Cambrian Period (540-485 million years)
2.10: Ordovician Period (485-444 million years)
2.11: Silurian Period (444-419 million years)
2.12: Devonian Period (419 to 359 million years)
2.13: Carboniferous Period (359 to 299 million years ago)
2.14: Mississippian Period (359 to 323 million years ago)
2.15: Pennsylvanian Period (323 to 299 million years ago)
2.16: Permian Period (299 to 252 million years)
2.17: Evidence of Large Mass Extinctions Preserved In the Fossil Record
2.18: Mesozoic Era
2.19: Triassic Period (252 to 201 million years)
2.20: Jurassic Period (201 to 145 million years)
2.21: Cretaceous Period (145 to 66 million years)
2.22: The Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary (or K T Boundary) Extinction
2.23: Cenozoic Era
2.24: Paleogene Period (66 to 23 million years ago)
2.25: Neogene Period (23 to 2.6 million years ago)
2.26: Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago to Present)
2.27: Evolution of Humans and the Rise of Modern Civilization
2.28: Refugia- How Life Goes On After Environmental Calamities
2.29: Evolution and Adaptation To Extremes
2.30: The Anthropocene Epoch (1865 AD to present)
2.31: Concepts of evolution refugia and succession provide a valuable lesson about modern society.
2.32: Where are rocks of different ages exposed in the United States
2.33: Quiz Questions - Chapter 2 - Evolution of Life Through Time
03: Structure of the Earth
3.01: Introduction
3.02: The Atmosphere
3.03: The Solar Wind Impacts the Upper Atmosphere
3.04: The Hydrosphere Cryosphere and Biosphere
3.05: Subdivisions of the Structure of the Solid Earth
3.06: Layers Of the Earth As Defined By Physical Properties
3.07: Magnetism Measurements Reveal the Earth's Metallic Core
3.08: Gravity Measurements
3.09: Earthquakes Faults and Earthquake Faults
3.10: How does seismic wave data reveal the internal structure of the Earth
3.11: Earths Major Boundaries Revealed By Seismic Waves
3.12: Seismic Wave Data Used To Map the Lithosphere
3.13: The Mantle
3.14: Isostasy
3.15: Plate Tectonics Theory
3.16: Historical Observations leading up to Plate Tectonics Theory
3.17: The Atlantic-Pacific Paradox
3.18: Seafloor Discoveries in the 20th Century
3.19: Paleomagnetism and the Study of the Seafloor
3.20: Another Geologic Paradox- The Rocks of the Ocean Floors are Much Younger than the Rocks of the Continents
3.21: Quiz Questions - Chapter 3 - Structure of the Earth
04: Plate Tectonics
4.11: Ancient Parts of Continents- Cratons and Shields
4.12: California Geology and Plate Tectonics History
4.13: Faults Earthquake Faults and Earthquakes in Southern California
4.14: Recommend Reading
4.15: Quiz Questions - Chapter 4 - Plate Tectonics
05: Ocean Basins
5.01: Ocean Basins
5.02: Continental Margins
5.03: Continental Shelf
5.04: Continental Slope
5.05: Continental Rise
5.06: Submarine Canyons
5.07: Turbidity Currents and Development of Submarine Canyons and Fans
5.08: Active vs. Passive Continental Margins
5.09: Deep-Ocean Basins
5.10: Oceanic Lithosphere and Basins
5.11: Formation and Destruction Cycle of Oceanic Lithosphere
5.12: Vents on the Seafloor- Black Smokers White Smokers and Deep-Sea Vent Communities
5.13: Coastal Plains Climate Change and Predicted Sea-Level Rise
5.14: Selected Resources
5.15: Quiz Questions - Chapter 5 - Ocean Basins
06: Marine Sediments
6.01: Marine Sediments
6.02: Cosmogenous Sediments
6.03: Hydrogenous Sediments
6.04: Lithogenous Sediments
6.05: Neritic and Pelagic Sediments
6.06: Biogenous Sediments
6.07: Volume and Distribution of Marine Sediments
6.08: High-Energy and Low-Energy Depositional Environments
6.09: Sources of Lithogenous Sediments- Continental Weathering and Erosion
6.10: Weathering
6.11: Sediments Classification Based On Grain Size
6.12: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
6.13: Unique Characteristics of Lithogenous Deposits and Rounding of Sediment Grains
6.14: Sorting
6.15: Sedimentary Processes and Sedimentary Structures
6.16: Sedimentary Structures Preserved in Bedding
6.17: Deep Sea Fan Turbidite Deposits and Abyssal Clays
6.18: Biogenous Sediments in the Marine Environment and Carbonate Reefs
6.19: Limey Sediments and Limestone
6.20: Oozes
6.21: Calcium Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD)
6.22: Chalk
6.23: Siliceous Oozes
6.24: Chert
6.25: Sedimentary Rock Formations
6.26: Final Thoughts
6.27: Quiz Questions - Chapter 6 - Marine Sediments
07: Properties of Seawater
7.01: Properties of Seawater
7.02: Specific Heat and Latent Heat Capacity of Water
7.03: Energy Associated With Evaporation and Condensation of Water In the Air
7.04: Salinity
7.05: Formation of Sea Ice
7.06: Relationship of Salinity Density and Temperature
7.07: Salinity and Latitude
7.08: Cline Curves and Mixing (Surface) Zone
7.09: Gases Dissolved In Seawater
7.10: Local Conditions in the San Diego Region
7.11: Quiz Questions - Chapter 7 - Properties of Seawater
08: Atmospheric Circulation
8.01: Atmospheric Circulation
8.02: Water Moisture in the Air
8.03: Atmospheric Pressure
8.04: Density of Air
8.05: Atmospheric Convection and Air Pressure Gradients Systems
8.06: Types of Air Masses and How They Form
8.07: Dust Aerosols and Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCNs)
8.08: How Does Air Pressure Relate to Weather
8.09: Weather
8.10: Weather and Climates
8.11: The Coriolis Effect on Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation Systems
8.12: Earth's Atmospheric Circulation System
8.13: The Coriolis Effect Influences Superstorms
8.14: Severe Weather
8.15: The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
8.16: Atmospheres on Other Planets
8.17: Quiz Questions - Chapter 8 - Atmospheric Circulation
09: Ocean Circulation
9.01: The Atmosphere and Ocean Circulation Systems Are Linked
9.02: Deep-Ocean Thermohaline Circulation
9.03: Sea Ice and Thermohaline Circulation
9.04: Surface Currents
9.05: Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport
9.06: Boundary Currents
9.07: Warm- and Cold-Core Rings
9.08: The Gulf Stream and the Antarctic Circumpolar Currents
9.09: Upwelling and Downwelling
9.10: Large Cycles in Ocean Climate Variability
9.11: El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
9.12: Impacts of ENSO Cycles
9.13: Sea Level Changes Caused by Continental Glaciation Cycles
9.14: Ice Ages of the Pleistocene Epoch
9.15: Sea Level Changes Caused By Glaciation Cycles
9.16: The Astronomical Connection- Milankovitch Theory
9.17: World Oceans and Landmasses During the Ice Ages
9.18: Increasing CO2 Concentrations Hypoxia and Eutrophication
9.19: Could the Oceans Become Anoxic
9.20: Ocean Acidification
9.21: What is a Garbage Patch
9.22: Quiz Questions - Chapter 9 - Ocean Circulation
10: Waves
10.01: Waves
10.02: Wave Speed and Energy and Wave Base
10.03: Wave Orbits and Orbital Depth
10.04: Breakers and Wave Trains
10.05: Origin of Wind Waves
10.06: Sea and Swell
10.07: How Waves Form
10.08: Cat's Paws
10.09: Beaufort Wind Force Scale and Wave Interference Patterns
10.10: Rogue Waves
10.11: Behavior of Waves
10.12: Surfer's Guide to Wave Forecasting for San Diego County
10.13: Tsunamis
10.14: Impact of Tsunamis in Modern World History
10.15: Quiz Questions - Chapter 10 - Waves
11: Tides
11.01: Tides
11.02: Phases of the Moon and Tides
11.03: The Effects of Elliptical Orbits of Earth and Moon On Tides
11.04: Types of Tidal Cycles and Regional Tidal Variations
11.05: Sea Level
11.06: Changes of the Sea Level
11.07: Amphidromic Points and Co-tidal Lines
11.08: What is a Tidal Wave
11.09: Storm Surge and Tides and Subdivisions of the Intertidal Zone
11.10: Tidal Forces In Other Planet Systems
11.11: A Rare King Tide Experience In San Diego
11.12: Quiz Questions - Chapter 11 - Tides
12: Coasts
12.01: Coasts
12.02: Classifications of Coastlines and Shoreline Features
12.03: Coastlines on Active and Passive Continental Margins
12.04: Erosional Coastal Landforms (on Secondary Coastlines)
12.05: Depositional Coastal Landforms
12.06: Emergent and Submergent Coasts
12.07: Common Shoreline Features of Beaches and Barrier Islands
12.08: Coral Reefs Keys and Atolls
12.09: Shoreline Erosion
12.10: Longshore Currents and Longshore Drift
12.11: Rip Currents and Rip Tides
12.12: Coastal Littoral Cells
12.13: Shoreline Erosion Problems
12.14: Structures Used to Protect Properties from the Destruction by the Sea
12.15: The Dam Problem
12.16: National Parks Associated With Coastlines and Coastal Processes
12.17: Quiz Questions - Chapter 12 - Coasts
13: Primary Production
13.01: Primary Production
13.02: Trophic Pyramids
13.03: Photosynthesis
13.04: Microscopic Plants- Phytoplankton
13.05: Photosynthetic Bacteria
13.06: Golden and Green Algae
13.07: Macroscopic Marine Algae (Seaweeds)
13.08: Marine Plants
13.09: Factors Influencing Primary Production
13.10: Global and Seasonal Distribution of Plankton Biomass
13.11: Examples of Satellite Evaluations of Ocean Productivity
13.12: Quiz Questions - Chapter 13 - Primary Production of Life in the Oceans
14: Marine Environments
14.01: Marine Environments
14.02: Definitions
14.03: Natural Factors Influencing Marine Life-
14.04: Physical Factors - Temperature
14.05: Physical Factors - Salinity
14.06: Physical Factors - Water Transparency
14.07: Physical Factors - Nutrients
14.08: Physical Factors - pH (acidity and alkalinity)
14.09: Physical Factors - Pressure
14.10: Physical Factors - Dissolved Gases
14.11: Physical Factors - Environmental Stability
14.12: Biological Factors
14.13: Seasonal Impacts of Food Resources in the Marine Environment
14.14: Divisions in the Marine Environment
14.15: Zoning and Extinction in Marine Communities
14.16: Carrying Capacity in Marine Communities
14.17: Distribution of Organisms
14.18: Symbiotic Relationships
14.19: Evolution in Marine Environments
14.20: What is the Carrying Capacity for Humans on Earth
14.21: Quiz Questions - Chapter 14 - Marine Environments
15: Marine Communities (Invertebrates)
15.01: Marine Communities in Benthic Environments
15.02: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Invertebrates
15.03: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Protozoa
15.04: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Porifera
15.05: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Coelenterada
15.06: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Annelida
15.07: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Mollusca
15.08: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Brachiopoda
15.09: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Arthropoda
15.10: Marine Animals in Benthic Environments - Echinodermata
15.11: Rocky Intertidal Zonation
15.12: Communities on Sandy Beach Shores
15.13: Shallow Offshore Benthic Communities
15.14: Kelp and Kelp Forests
15.15: Coral Reefs
15.16: Deep-Ocean Floor Communities
15.17: Hydrothermal Vents
15.18: Quiz Questions - Chapter 15 - Marine Communities in Benthic Environments
16: Marine Communities (Vertebrates)
16.01: Animals in the Pelagic Environment
16.02: Marine Vertebrates
16.03: Migration of Gray Whales on the West Coast
16.04: Marine Reptiles
16.05: Seabirds
16.06: Fish
16.07: Adaptations to the Marine Environment
16.08: Protecting and Preserving Marine Life- A Most-Essential Goal For the 21st Century
16.09: Quiz Questions - Chapter 16 - Animals in the Pelagic Environment
17: Marine Pollution
17.01: Human Impacts- Marine Resources and Pollution
17.02: Ocean Resources
17.03: Petroleum (Oil and Gas) Resources in the Marine Environment
17.04: Sand and Gravel Resources
17.05: Mineral Resources
17.06: Biological Resources
17.07: Coastal Land Resources
17.08: Marine Pollution
17.09: Pollution and Pollutants
17.10: Impact of Large Petroleum-Related Disasters
17.11: Solid Wastes
17.12: Sewage
17.13: Heavy Metals and Toxic Compounds
17.14: Phosphorus Nitrogen and Other Nutrient Pollution
17.15: Synthetic Organic Chemicals and Medical Wastes
17.16: Coastal Dredging
17.17: Protecting the Marine Environment
17.18: Quiz Questions - Chapter 17 - Human Impacts- Marine Resources and Pollution